Spor Branşına Yönlendirmede Genetik Testlerin Stratejik Rolü

Abstract

Dünyada sporun gelişmesi ile birlikte özellikle sporcuların yapmış oldukları sporda gelişim sağlamaları için çok küçük yaşlarda spora başlamaları ve disipline edilmeleri gerekmektedir. Bu nedenle çocuklara küçük yaşta spora yatkınlıklarının belirlenebilmesi için genetik testleri uygulanmaktadır. Literatürde yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde özellikle genetik elementlerin belirli atletik özelliklerle ilişkilendirildiği ve buna bağlı olarak genetik değişikliklerin mümkün olduğu görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada spor yeteneğini etkileyen genetik polimorfizm incelenmiş ve genetik testlerin spor branşına stratejik olarak etkisinin ne olduğu yorumlanmıştır.

Keywords

• Spor
• Genetiktestler
• Çoçuk

Strategic Role of Genetic Testing in Direction to Sports Brach

Abstract

With the development of sports in the world, especially athletes need to start sports at a very young age and be disciplined in to develop their sports. For this reason, genetic tests are applied to children to determine their tendency to sports at an early age. When the studies in the literature are examined, it is seen that especially genetic elements are associated with certain athletic characteristics and genetic changes are possible accordingly. In this study, genetic polymorphism affecting sports ability was examined and the strategic effect of genetic tests on the sports branch was interpreted

Keywords

• Child
• genetic tests
• sport

References

1. Ahmetov, I.I., Gavrilov, D.N., Astratenkova, I.V., Druzhevskaya, A.M., Malinin, A.V., Romanova, E.E., & Rogozkin, V.A. (2013). The association of ACE, ACTN3 and PPARA gene variants with strength phenotypes in middle school-age children. The Journal of Physiological Sciences, 63(1), 79-85.
2. Assael S. (2012). Cheating is so 1999: A reporter spends a year searching for the athletic holy grail - A sports gene. [Accessed April 26, 2021];ESPN The Magazine. 2012 Jul 10; http://m.espn.go.com/general/story?storyId=8153641&wjb=&pg=3.
3. Bacon, A. P., Carter, R. E., Ogle, E. A., Joyner, M. J. (2013). VO2max Trainability and high intensity interval training in humans: A meta analysis, Plos One, 8(9), e73182.
4. Bayraktar B, Kurtoğlu M. (2004). Sporda performans ve performans artırma yöntemleri. Atasü T, Yücesir İ, eds. Doping ve futbolda performans artırma yöntemleri, İstanbul.
5. Ben-Zaken, S., Eliakim, A., Nemet, D., Rabinovich, M., Kassem, E., & Meckel, Y. (2015). ACTN3 polymorphism: comparison between elite swimmers and runners. Sports Medicine-Open, 1(1), 13.
6. Bennell, K, Matheson G, Meeuwisse W, et al. (1999). Risk factors for stress fractures. Sports Medicine, 28, 91-122. Bouchard, C. (2012). Genomic predictors of trainability. Experimental Physiology. Mar 13, 97(3), 347-352.
7. Bray, M.S., Hagberg, J.M., Perusse, L., Rankinen, T., Roth, S.M., Wolfarth, B., et al. (2009). The human gene map for performance and health-related fitness phenotypes: The 2006–2007 update. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 41(1), 35-73.
8. Brutsaert, T.D., & Parra, E.J. (2006). What makes a champion? Explaining variation in human athletic performance. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology. 151, 109-123.

9. Cieszcyk,P., J. Eider, M. Ostanek, A. Arczewska, A. Leońska-Duniec, S. Sawczyn, et al.(2011). Association of the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism in Polish power-orientated athletes. Journal of Human Kinetics, 28, 55-61.
10. Chiu, L.L., Hsieh, L.L., Yen, K.T., & Hsieh, S.S. (2005). ACE I/D and ACTN3 R577X polymorphism in elite athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 37(5), 167.
11. Choudhary, S.S., Choudhary, S. (2008). Exercise testing in assessment and management of patients in clinical practice-present situation, Lung India, 25(3), 111-117.
12. Collins, M., Xenophontos, S.L., Carıolou, M.A., Mokone, G.G., Hudson, D.E., Anastasıades, L., & Noakes, T.D. (2004). The ACE gene and endurance performance during The South African ironman triathlons. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(8), 1314-1320.
13. Copley, B.B. (1980). Morphological and physiological study of tennis players with special reference to the effects of tranining. South African Journal for Research in Sports, Physical Education and Recreation 3, 33-44. Dennis C. (2005). Rugby team converts to give gene tests a try. Nature. 434,260.
14. Del Coso, J., Valero, M., Salinero, J.J., Lara, B., Diaz, G., Gallo-Salazar, C., Ruiz-Vicente, D. et al. (2017) ACTN3 genotype influences exercise-induced muscle damage during a marathon competition. European journal of applied physiology, 117(3), 409-416.
15. De Mello Costa, M.F., & Slocombe, R. (2012). The use of angiotensin-I converting enzyme I/D genetic polymorphism as a biomarker of athletic performance in humans. Biosensors, 2(4), 396-404.
16. Dias, Luiz, A., & Tavares, Mara G. (2007). Genetic divergence between populations of the stingless bee uruçu amarela. Genetics and Molecular Biology. 30(3), 667-675.
17. De Souza, M.J., Nattiv, A., Joy, E., et al. (2014) Female Athlete Triad Coalition Consensus Statement on Treatment and Return to Play of the Female Athlete Triad: 1st International Conference held in San Francisco, California, May 2012 and 2nd International Conference held in Indianapolis, Indiana, May 2013. Clin J Sport Med., 24, 96–119.
18. Dinç, N. ve Gökmen, M.H. (2019). Atletik performans ve spor genetiği, Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6(2), 127-137.
19. Döring, F.E., Onur, S., Geisen, U., Boulay, M. R., Pérusse, L., Rankinen, T., & Bouchard, C. (2010). ACTN3 R577X and other polymorphisms are not associated with elite endurance athlete status in the Genathlete study. Journal of sports sciences, 28(12), 1355-1359.
20. Eynon, N., Ruiz, J. R., Femia, P., Pushkarev, V. P., Cieszczyk, P., Maciejewska-Karlowska, A. & Birk, R. (2012). The ACTN3 R577X polymorphism across three groups of elite male European athletes. PloS one, 7(8).
21. Eynon, J.A., Duarte, J., Oliveira, M., Sagiv, C., Yamin, Y. et al. (2009). ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and Israeli top-level athletes Int J Sports Med, 30, 695-698.
22. Field, A.E., Gordon, C.M., Pierce, L.M., et al. (2011). Prospective study of physical activity and risk of developing a stress fracture among preadolescent and adolescent girls. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med., 165, 723-728.
23. Foddy, B., Savulescu, J. (2011). Time to re-evaluate gender segregation in athletics? Br J Sports Med., 45, 1184-1188.
24. Fredericson, M., Jennings, F., Beaulieu, C., et al. (2006). Stress fractures in athletes. Top Magn Reson Imaging; 17, 309-325.
25. Gene Doping. [Acessed April 25, 2021];World Anti-Doping Agency website. http://www.wada-ama.org/en/Science-Medicine/Science-topics/Gene-Doping/
26. Grealy, R., Smith, C. L., Chen, T., Hiller, D., Haseler, L. J., & Griffiths, L. R. (2013). The genetics of endurance: frequency of the ACTN3 R577X variant in Ironman World Championship athletes. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 16(4), 365-371.
27. Gullikson, T. (2003). Teniste, fiziksel uygunluk testleri. Spor Araştırmaları Dergisi. 7(1), 23-25.
28. Holtzman, N.A., Watson, M.S. (1998). Promoting Safe and Effective Genetic Testing in the United States. Final Report of the Task Force on Genetic Testing. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
29. Kikuchi, N., Miyamoto-Mikami, E., Murakami, H., Nakamura, T., Min, S. K., Mizuno, M. & Fuku, N. (2016). ACTN3 R577X genotype and athletic performance in a large cohort of Japanese athletes. European journal of sport science, 16(6), 694-701.
30. Kim, H., Song, K. H., & Kim, C. H. (2014). The ACTN3 R577X variant in sprint and strength performance. Journal of Exercise Nutrition & Biochemistry, 18(4), 347.
31. Koku, F.E. (2015). Sportif performansın genetik ile ilişkisi, Spor Hekimliği Dergisi, 50, 21-30.
32. Lehrer J. (2012). Why did Kobe go to Germany? [Accessed April 25, 2021];Grantland. 2012 Apr 16; http://grantland.com/features/kobe-bryant-dr-chris-renna-regenokine-knee-treatment/
33. Litke J. Curry's DNA fight with Bulls ‘bigger than sports world’ [Accessed April 25, 2021];Associated Press ESPN. 2005 Sep 29; http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2174877.
34. MacArthur, D.G., North, K.N. (2004). A gene for speed? The evolution and function of alpha-actinin-3. BioEssays, 26, 786-795.
35. Marsh B. (2011). DNA clue to football injuries. [Accessed April 25, 2021];The Sunday Times. 2011 Oct 16; http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/article799536.ece.
36. Mishra A.K., Skrepnik N.V., Edwards, S.G., et al. (2014). Efficacy of platelet-rich plasma for chronic tennis elbow: a double-blind, prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled trial of 230 patients. Am J Sports Med.; 42, 463-471.
37. Moreno, V., Areces, F., Ruiz-Vicente, D., Ordovás, J. M., & Del Coso, J. (2020). Influence of the ACTN3 R577X genotype on the injury epidemiology of marathon runners. PloS one, 15(1), e0227548.
38. Myerson, S., Hemingway, H., Budget, R., Martin, J., Humphries, S., Montgomery, H., & (With the Technical Assistance of Maj Mutch and Helen McGloin). (1999). Human angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene and endurance performance. Journal of applied physiology, 87(4), 1313-1316.
39. Niemi, A.K., & Majamaa, K. (2005). Mitochondrial DNA and ACTN3 genotypes in Finnish elite endurance and sprint athletes. European Journal of Human Genetics, 13(8), 965- 969.
40. Nunan, D. (2006). Development of sports specific aerobic capacity test for karate-A pilot study, J. Sports Sci Med. 5(1), 47-53. Ostojic, S.M. (2016). Post-Exercises Recovey: Fundamental and Interventional Physiology, Front Physiol, 7, 3.
41. Özveren, Y., Özçaldıran, B., Durmaz, B., Oral O. (2014). Talent Selection and Genetics in Sport, Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise, 16, 2, 1-8.
42. Papadimitriou, I.D., Lucia, A., Pitsiladis, Y.P., Pushkarev, V.P., Dyatlov, D.A., Orekhov, E.F. & Cieszczyk, P. (2016). ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D gene variants influence performance in elite sprinters: a multi-cohort study. BMC genomics, 17(1), 285.
43. Panagiotou, O.A., Willer, C.J., Hirschhorn, J.N, et al. (2013). The power of meta-analysis in genome-wide association studies. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet., 14,441-465.
44. Papadimitriou, I.D., Lockey, S.J., Voisin, S., et al. (2018). No association between ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms and endurance running times in 698 Caucasian athletes. BMC Genomics, 19(1), 13.
45. Perusse, L., Rankinen, T., Rauramaa, R., Rivera, S.M., Bouchard, C., & Wolfarth, B., (2003). The human gene map for performance and health-re- lated fitness phenotypes. The Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 35(8), 1248-1264.
46. Puthucheary, Z. Skipworth, J.R.A., Rawal, J., Loosemore, M., Van Someren, K., Montgomery, H.E. (2011). Genetic Influences in Sport and Physical Performance, Sports Medicine, 41(10), 845-859.
47. Richards, M. (2004). DNA Families. Biological Sciences Review, 8(April), 11.
48. Robotham, J. (2001). The Sydney Morning Herald. Jun 1, 2001. Pro boxers face going down for the gene count; p. A3.
49. Saito, D., Fuku, N., Mikami, E., et al. (2011). The ACTN3 R577X nonsense allele is under-represented in elite-level Japanese endurance runners. Japanese Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine, 60(4), 443-451.
50. Saunders, C.J., September, A.V., Xenophontos, S.L., Cariolou, M.A., Anastassiades, L.C., Noakes, T.D., & Collins, M. (2007). No association of the ACTN3 gene R577X polymorphism with endurance performance in Ironman Triathlons. Annals of Human Genetics, 71(6), 777-781.
51. Schmidt, M., Schwarz, A. (2009). New York Times. Jul 22, 2009. Baseball's use of DNA tests on prospects finds controversy, too; p. A1.
52. Schneider, K.I., Schmidtke, J. (2014). Patient compliance based on genetic medicine: a literature review. J Community Genet, 5,31-48.
53. Siegel, A., Alvarez, F. (2010). Sickle-cell testing and the implications of GINA. [Accessed April 25, 2021];Sports Litig Alert. 2010 9 http://www.sportslitigationalert.com/archive/2010_05_21.php.
54. Subak, G.E., Özdemir, F.N.Ş., Müniroğlu, R.S. (2017). Sporcuların Başarısında Genetik Faktörlerin Önemi, Spormetre, 15(3), 109-118.
55. Süel, E., & Pehlivan, A. (2015). Angiotension dönüştürücü (Converting) Enzim (ACE) gen polimorfizminin elit basketbolcu ve voleybolcularda karşılaştırılması. Uluslararası Spor Egzersiz ve Antrenman Bilimi Dergisi, 1(1), 40-50.
56. Tarakçıoğlu, S. (2013). Genetik mühendisliği ve spor, Türkiye Klinikleri J Sports Sci., 5(1), 48-54.
57. Tucker, R., Collins, M. (2012). What makes champions? A review of the relative contribution of genes and training to sporting success. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 46(8), 555–561.
58. Ulucan, K., Nurdan, Ç.A.M., Sercan, C., Akbaş, B., Uyumaz, F., & Yalcın, S. (2015). Genç basketbolcularda anjiotensin dönüştürücü enzim (ACE I/D) ve alfa-aktinin-3 (ACTN3 R577X) gen polimorfizmlerinin belirlenmesi için pilot bir çalışma. Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 26(2), 44-50.
59. Voroshin, I.N., & Astratenkova, I.V. (2008). Dependence of endurance performance on ACE gene polymorphism in athletes. Human physiology, 34(1), 117-119.
60. Williamson, L. (2014). Two Premier League clubs sign up with top genetics company to learn DNA profiles of players. [Accessed April 25, 2021];Daily Mail. 2014 Mar 17; http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-2582714/Two-Premier-League-clubs-sign-genetics-company-learn-DNA-profiles-players.html.
61. Wagner, J.K. (2013). Playing with heart and soul…and genomes: sports implications and applications of personal genomics. PeerJ. 1, e120.
62. Watts, S. (2012). Olympic Team GB trials gene tests for injury. [Accessed April 25, 2021];BBC News. 2012 Jul 25; www.bbc.com/news/health-18970982.
63. Woods, D.R., Humphries, S.E., & Montgomery, H.E. (2000). The ACE I/D polymorphism and human physical performance. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, 11(10), 416-420.
64. Yang, N., MacArthur, D.G., Gulbin, J.P., et al. (2003). ACTN3 genotype is associated with human elite athletic performance, Am J Hum Genet, 73, 627-631.
65. Yang, R., Shen, X., Wang, Y., et al. (2017). ACTN3 R577X gene variant is associated with muscle-related phenotypes in elite Chinese sprint/power athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(4), 1107-1115.
66. Zarda, (2010). Lawsuit Prompts NCAA to Screen Athletes for Sickle Cell. [Accessed April 25, 2021];USA Today. 2010 Jul 2; http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/college/2010-06-30-sickle-cell-ncaa-cover_N.htm.
67. Zhang, B., Tanaka, H., Shono, N., et al. (2003). The I allele of the angiotensin‐converting enzyme gene is associated with an increased percentage of slow‐twitch type I fibers in human skeletal muscle. Clinical Genetics, 63(2), 139-144.