Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare reactive strength index (RSI), muscle stiffness, and aerobic capacity between male and female soccer players, and to examine their relationships with physical performance. A total of 32 soccer players participated in the study, including 16 female players (age: 18.06 ± 3.21 years; height: 1.66 ± 0.09 m; body mass: 56.87 ± 7.51 kg; BMI: 20.78 ± 2.03 kg/m²; training age: 7.09 ± 2.49 years) and 16 male players (age: 21.37 ± 3.86 years; height: 1.79 ± 0.06 m; body mass: 71.87 ± 8.93 kg; BMI: 22.51 ± 2.20 kg/m²; training age: 11.37 ± 4.22 years). To compare performance characteristics between sexes, several key physical parameters were assessed, including linear sprint velocity, aerobic capacity (via the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test), maximal ball velocity, leg stiffness, and Reactive Strength Index (RSI). Significant sex-based differences were found in sprint (p = 0.000, ES = 2.34), 30-15 IFT (p = 0.005, ES = 1.07), kicking velocity (p = 0.000, ES = 3.31), RSI (p = 0.043, ES = 0.75), and stiffness (p = 0.007, ES = 1.02). In females, stiffness was negatively correlated with kicking velocity (p = 0.017, ES = –8.34), while in males, RSI (p = 0.013, r = 0.604, ES = 2.47) and stiffness (p = 0.028, r = 0.548, ES = 1.82) were positively correlated with kicking velocity. Additionally, stiffness was positively related to 30-15 IFT performance in males (p = 0.049, r = 0.499, ES = 1.98). Male players showed higher RSI and stiffness values, which were more strongly associated with performance, while lower stiffness in females may support technical skills but increase injury risk. These findings highlight the importance of sex-specific training approaches that consider neuromechanical differences in performance and injury prevention.

Keywords

• Aerobic capacity
• Injury risk
• Kicking performance
• Neuromechanical characteristics
• Sprint

Elit Erkek ve Kadın Futbolcularda Kas Sertliği ve Reaktif Kuvvet İndeksi Arasındaki Cinsiyete Dayalı Farklılıklar ve İlişkiler

Abstract

Bu çalışmanın amacı, erkek ve kadın futbolcular arasında reaktif kuvvet indeksi (RSI), kas sertliği ve aerobik kapasiteyi karşılaştırmak ve bu parametrelerin fiziksel performansla olan ilişkilerini incelemektir. Çalışmaya 32 futbolcu katılmıştır; bunların 16’sı kadın (yaş: 18.06 ± 3.21 yıl; boy: 1.66 ± 0.09 m; vücut ağırlığı: 56.87 ± 7.51 kg; BKİ: 20.78 ± 2.03 kg/m²; antrenman yaşı: 7.09 ± 2.49 yıl) ve 16’sı erkektir (yaş: 21.37 ± 3.86 yıl; boy: 1.79 ± 0.06 m; vücut ağırlığı: 71.87 ± 8.93 kg; BKİ: 22.51 ± 2.20 kg/m²; antrenman yaşı: 11.37 ± 4.22 yıl). Cinsiyete bağlı performans farklılıklarını karşılaştırmak amacıyla doğrusal sprint hızı, aerobik kapasite (30-15 Aralıklı Fitness Testi), maksimum şut hızı, bacak sertliği ve reaktif kuvvet indeksi gibi temel fiziksel parametreler değerlendirilmiştir. Sprint (p = 0.000, ES = 2.34), 30-15 IFT (p = 0.005, ES = 1.07), maksimum şut hızı (p = 0.000, ES = 3.31), RSI (p = 0.043, ES = 0.75) ve bacak sertliği (p = 0.007, ES = 1.02) performanslarında cinsiyetler arasında anlamlı farklar bulunmuştur. Kadın futbolcularda, bacak sertliği ile topa vurma hızı arasında negatif korelasyon saptanmıştır (p = 0.017, ES = –8.34); erkek futbolcularda ise RSI (p = 0.013, r = 0.604, ES = 2.47) ve sertlik (p = 0.028, r = 0.548, ES = 1.82) şut hızı ile pozitif ilişkili bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, erkeklerde sertlik, 30-15 IFT performansı ile anlamlı pozitif ilişki göstermiştir (p = 0.049, r = 0.499, ES = 1.98). Erkek futbolcular daha yüksek RSI ve sertlik değerlerine sahipken, bu parametreler performansla daha güçlü ilişkiler göstermiştir. Kadınlarda ise daha düşük kas sertliği teknik becerilere katkı sağlayabilirken, yaralanma riskini artırabileceği görülmüştür. Bu bulgular, performans ve sakatlanma riskine yönelik cinsiyete özgü antrenman yaklaşımlarının önemini ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

• Aerobik kapasite
• Yaralanma riski
• Vuruş performansı
• Nöromekanik özellikler
• Sprint

References

1. 1. Aboodarda S, Spence A, Button DC. Pain pressure threshold of a muscle tender spot increases following local and non-local rolling massage. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 2015; 16(1): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-015-0729-5.
2. 2. Adstrum S, Hedley G, Schleip R, Stecco C, Yucesoy CA. Defining the fascial system. J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther, 2017; 21, 173–177.
3. 3. Ajimsha MS, Al-Mudahka NR, Al-Madzhar JA. Effectiveness of myofascial release: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 2015; Jan;19(1):102-12.
4. 4. Amico AD, Morin C, Release M, Performance H. Miyofasyal salınımın insan performansı üzerindeki etkileri, literatür taraması. Miyofasyal Salınım Hum. Perform, 2013; 1, 1–45.
5. 5. Beardsley C, Skarabot J. Effects of self-myofascial release: A systematic review. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies, 2015; 19, 747-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2015.08.007.
6. 6. Borg-Stein J, Simons DG. Focused review: Myofascial pain. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil, 2002; 83, 40–47.
7. 7. Casanova N, Reis JF, Vaz JR, Machado R, Mendes B, Button DC, Pezarat-Correia P, Freitas SR. Effects of roller massager on muscle recovery after exercise induced muscle damage. J Sports Sci, 2018; 36: 56–63.
8. 8. Cheatham SW, Kolber MJ, Cain M, Lee M. The effects of self myofascial release using a foam roll or roller massager on joint range of motion, muscle recovery, and performance: A systematic review. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 2015; 10(6): 827-838.

9. 9. Chen AH, Chiu CH, Hsu CH, Wang IL, Chou KM, Tsai YS, Lin YF, Chen CH. Acute effects of vibration foam rolling warm-up on jump and flexibility asymmetry, agility and frequency speed of kick test performance in taekwondo athletes. Symmetry, 2021; 13, 1664.
10. 10. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. routledge, 2013.
11. 11. Collazo MA. Sistema de Capacidades Físicas. Fundamentos teóricos, Metodologicos y Cientificos que sustentan su Desarrollo en el Hombre; CENDA: Havana, Cuba, 2003.
12. 12. Conte D, Kamarauskas P, Ferioli D, Scanlan AT, Kamandulis S, Paulauskas H, Lukonaitienė I. Workload and well-being across games played on consecutive days during in-season phase in basketball players. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 2021; 61(4): 534–541. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.20.11396-3.
13. 13. Correll S, Field J, Hutchinson H, Mickevicius G, Fitzsimmons A. Smoot B. Relıabılıty and Valıdıty of The Halo Arkıtal Gonıometer for Shoulder Range of Motıon in Healthy Subjects. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2018; Aug;13(4):707–714. PMID: 30140564.
14. 14. D’Amico A, Paolone V. The Effect of Foam Rolling on Recovery between Two Eight Hundred Metre Runs. J. Hum. Kinet, 2017; 57, 97–105.
15. 15. Devlin J, Paton B, Poole L, Sun W, Ferguson C, Wilson J, Kemi OJ. Blood lactate clearance after maximal exercise depends on active recovery intensity. J Sports Med. Phys Fitness, 2014; 54(3), 271-278.
16. 16. Drinkwater EJ, Latella C, Wilsmore C, Bird SP, Skein M. Foam rolling as a recovery tool following eccentric exercise: potential mechanisms underpinning changes in jump performance. Frontiers in Physiology, 2019; 10, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00768.
17. 17. Dupuy O, Douzi W, Theurot D, Bosquet L, Dugué B. An evidence-based approach for choosing post-exercise recovery techniques to reduce markers of muscle damage, soreness, fatigue and inflammation: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 2018; 9, 41-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00403.
18. 18. Durnin JV, Womersley J. Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women aged from 16 to 72 years. Br J Nutr, 1974; 32, 77–97.
19. 19. Edwards T, Spiteri T, Piggott B, Bonhotal J, Haff GG, Joyce C. Monitoring and Managing Fatigue in Basketball. Sports, 2018; 6(1): 19. https:// doi.org/10.3390/sports6010019.
20. 20. Ferreira RM, Martins PN, Goncalves RS. Kendiliğinden Miyofasyal Serbestleştirme Aletlerinin Performans ve İyileşme Üzerindeki Etkileri: Bir Genel İnceleme. Int. J. Exerc. Sci, 2022; 15, 861.
21. 21. George D, Mallery P. IBM SPSS Statistics 26 Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference (16th ed.). Routledge, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429056765.
22. 22. Glänzel MH, Rodrigues DR, Petter GN, Pozzobon D, Vaz MA, Geremia JM. Foam Rolling Acute Effects on Myofascial Tissue Stiffness and Muscle Strength: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Strength Cond. Res, 2022; 10, 1519.
23. 23. Halperin I, Aboodarda SJ, Button DC, Andersen LL, Behm DG. Roller massager improves range of motion of plantar flexor muscles without subsequent decreases in force parameters. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2014; 9: 92-102.
24. 24. İlbak İ, Eken Ö. Köpük silindir aracılığıyla kendi kendine miyofasyal gevşeme tekniğinin fitness sporcuları üzerindeki etkilerinin incelenmesi. Spor Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2022; 8(1): 17-28.
25. 25. Jay K, Sundstrup E, Søndergaard SD, Behm D, Brandt M, Særvoll CA, Jakobsen MD, Andersen LL. Specific and cross over effects of massage for muscle soreness: randomized controlled trial. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2014; Feb;9(1):82-91. PMID: 24567859; PMCID: PMC3924612.
26. 26. Jo E, Juache GA, Saralegui DE, Weng D, Falatoonzadeh S. The acute effects of foam rolling on fatigue-related ımpairments of muscular performance. Sports, 2018; 6(4): 112-120. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040112.
27. 27. Junker D, Stöggl T. The Training Effects of Foam Rolling on Core Strength Endurance, Balance, Muscle Performance and Range of Motion: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Sports Sci Med, 2019; 18:229238.
28. 28. Konrad A, Nakamura M, Tilp M, Donti O, Behm DG. Foam Rolling Training Effects on Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med, 2022; 52, 2523–2535, 23, 61.
29. 29. Kurt C. Gurol B. Nebioğlu IO. Effects of traditional stretching versus self-myofascial release warm-up on physical performance in well-trained female athletes. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 2023.
30. 30. Lee GL, Hua Chu I, Lyu BJ, Chang WD, Chang NJ. Comparison of vibration rolling, nonvibration rolling, and static stretching as a warm-up exercise on flexibility, joint proprioception, muscle strength, and balance in young adults. J Sports Sci, 2018; Nov;36(22):2575-2582. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1469848.
31. 31. Lyu BJ, Lee CL, Chang WD, Chang NJ. Effects of vibration rolling with and without dynamic muscle contraction on ankle range of motion, proprioception, muscle strength and agility in young adults: a crossover study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020; 17: 354.
32. 32. MacDonald GZ, Penney MDH, Mullaley ME, Cuconato AL, Drake CDJ, Behm DG, Button DC. An Acute Bout of Self-Myofascial Release Increases Range of Motion Without a Subsequent Decrease in Muscle Activation or Force. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2013; 27(3): 812-821, March 2013. | DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825c2bc1.
33. 33. Macdonald GZ, Button DC, Drinkwater EJ, Behm DG. Foam rolling as a recovery tool after an intense bout of physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2014; Jan;46(1):131-42. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182a123db. PMID: 24343353.
34. 34. Martinez-Aranda LM, Sanz-Matesanz M, García-Mantilla ED, García-Mantilla FT. Effects of Self-Myofascial Release on Athletes’ Physical Performance: A Systematic Review J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol, 2024; 9(1): 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9010020.
35. 35. Mauntel TC, Clark MA, Padua DA. Effectiveness of Myofascial Release Therapies on Physical Performance Measurements: A Systematic Review. Athl. Train Sport Health Care, 2014; 6, 189–196.
36. 36. Miller JK, Rockey AM. Foam Rollers Show No Increase in the Flexibility of the Hamstring Muscle Group. UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research IX.1-4, 2006.
37. 37. Mohr AR, Long BC, Goad CL. Effect of foam rolling and static stretching on passive hip-flexion range of motion. J Sport Rehabil, 2014; 23: 296-299.
38. 38. Morales-Artacho AJ, Lacourpaille L, Guilhem G. Effects of warm-up on hamstring muscles stiffness: Cycling vs foam rolling. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2017; 27: 1959-1969.
39. 39. Pagaduan JC, Chang SY, Chang NJ. Chronic Effects of Foam Rolling on Flexibility and Performance: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 2022; 19, 4315.
40. 40. Peacock CA, Krein DD, Silver TA, Sanders GJ, von Carlowitz KPA. An acute bout of self-myofascial release in the form of foam rolling improves performance testing. Int. J. Exerc. Sci, 2014; 7, 202–211.
41. 41. Pearcey GE, Bradbury-Squires DJ, Kawamoto JE, Drinkwater EJ, Behm DG, Button DC. Foam rolling for delayed-onset muscle soreness and recovery of dynamic performance measures. J Athl Train, 2014; Jan;50(1):5-13. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-50.1.01. Epub Nov 21. PMID: 25415413; PMCID: PMC4299735.
42. 42. Rey E, Padron-Cabo A, Costa PB, Barcala-Furelos R. Effects of foam rolling as a recovery tool in professional soccer players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 2019; 33(8): 2194-2201. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002277.
43. 43. Richman ED, Tyo BM, Nicks CR. Combined effects of self-myofascial release and dynamic stretching on range of motion, jump, sprint, and agility performance. J Strength Condit Res, 2019; 33: 1795–803.
44. 44. Schleip R. Fascial plasticity-A new neurobiological explanation: Part 2. J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther, 2003; 7, 105-116.
45. 45. Schleip R, Naylor IL, Ursu D, Melzer W, Zorn A, Wilke HJ, Lehmann-Horn F, Klingler W. Passive muscle stiffness may be influenced by active contractility of intramuscular connective tissue. Med. Hypotheses, 2006; 66, 66–71.
46. 46. Schroeder AN, Best TM. Is Self-Myofascial release an effective preexercise and recovery strategy? A literature review. Curr. Sports Med. Rep, 2015; 14, 200–208.
47. 47. Siri WE. The gross composition of the body. In C.A. ToBİAs & J.H. Lawrence (Eds.), Advances in biological and medical physics. New York: Academic. 1956.
48. 48. Smith JC, Pridgeon B, Hall MC. Acute effect of foam rolling and dynamic stretching on flexibility and jump height. J Strength Cond Res, 2018; 32:2209–2215. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002321.Sports Medicine Institute, 2024. A Guide to the Foam Roller. Available online: http://smiweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/roller.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2024).
49. 49. Sullivan KM, Silvey DB, Button DC, Behm DG. Applying roller massage to the hamstrings increases the range of motion of sitting and lying down within five to ten seconds without performance impairments. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2013; 8:228–236.
50. 50. Sulowska-Daszyk I, Skiba A. The Influence of Self-Myofascial Release on Muscle Flexibility in Long-Distance Runners. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 2022; 19, 457.
51. 51. Tabachnick BG, Fidell LS, Ullman JB. Using multivariate statistics, 2013; 6,497-516. Boston, MA.
52. 52. Thompson WR. Worldwide survey of fitness trends for. ACSM Health Fit. J, 2018; 21, 10–19.
53. 53. Wang F, Zhang Z, Li C, Zhu D, Hu Y, Fu H, Zhai H, Wang Y. Acute effects of vibration foam rolling and local vibration during warm-up on athletic performance in tennis players. PLoS ONE, 2022; 17, e0268515.
54. 54. Wilke J, Schwiete C, Behringer M. Effects of Maximal Eccentric Exercise on Deep Fascia Stiffness of the Knee Flexors: A Pilot Study using Shear-Wave Elastography. J. Sports Sci. Med, 2022; 21, 419–425.
55. 55. Zhang Q, Trama R, Foure A, Hautier CA. The Immediate Effects of Self‐Myofacial Release on Flexibility, Jump Performance and Dynamic Balance Ability. J Hum Kinet. Oct, 2020; 31;75:139–148. doi: 10.2478/hukin-2020-0043.