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Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players

Year 2025, Volume: 27 Issue: 2, 335 - 342, 31.08.2025

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare reactive strength index (RSI), muscle stiffness, and aerobic capacity between male and female soccer players, and to examine their relationships with physical performance. A total of 32 soccer players participated in the study, including 16 female players (age: 18.06 ± 3.21 years; height: 1.66 ± 0.09 m; body mass: 56.87 ± 7.51 kg; BMI: 20.78 ± 2.03 kg/m²; training age: 7.09 ± 2.49 years) and 16 male players (age: 21.37 ± 3.86 years; height: 1.79 ± 0.06 m; body mass: 71.87 ± 8.93 kg; BMI: 22.51 ± 2.20 kg/m²; training age: 11.37 ± 4.22 years). To compare performance characteristics between sexes, several key physical parameters were assessed, including linear sprint velocity, aerobic capacity (via the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test), maximal ball velocity, leg stiffness, and Reactive Strength Index (RSI). Significant sex-based differences were found in sprint (p = 0.000, ES = 2.34), 30-15 IFT (p = 0.005, ES = 1.07), kicking velocity (p = 0.000, ES = 3.31), RSI (p = 0.043, ES = 0.75), and stiffness (p = 0.007, ES = 1.02). In females, stiffness was negatively correlated with kicking velocity (p = 0.017, ES = –8.34), while in males, RSI (p = 0.013, r = 0.604, ES = 2.47) and stiffness (p = 0.028, r = 0.548, ES = 1.82) were positively correlated with kicking velocity. Additionally, stiffness was positively related to 30-15 IFT performance in males (p = 0.049, r = 0.499, ES = 1.98). Male players showed higher RSI and stiffness values, which were more strongly associated with performance, while lower stiffness in females may support technical skills but increase injury risk. These findings highlight the importance of sex-specific training approaches that consider neuromechanical differences in performance and injury prevention.

References

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Elit Erkek ve Kadın Futbolcularda Kas Sertliği ve Reaktif Kuvvet İndeksi Arasındaki Cinsiyete Dayalı Farklılıklar ve İlişkiler

Year 2025, Volume: 27 Issue: 2, 335 - 342, 31.08.2025

Abstract

Bu çalışmanın amacı, erkek ve kadın futbolcular arasında reaktif kuvvet indeksi (RSI), kas sertliği ve aerobik kapasiteyi karşılaştırmak ve bu parametrelerin fiziksel performansla olan ilişkilerini incelemektir. Çalışmaya 32 futbolcu katılmıştır; bunların 16’sı kadın (yaş: 18.06 ± 3.21 yıl; boy: 1.66 ± 0.09 m; vücut ağırlığı: 56.87 ± 7.51 kg; BKİ: 20.78 ± 2.03 kg/m²; antrenman yaşı: 7.09 ± 2.49 yıl) ve 16’sı erkektir (yaş: 21.37 ± 3.86 yıl; boy: 1.79 ± 0.06 m; vücut ağırlığı: 71.87 ± 8.93 kg; BKİ: 22.51 ± 2.20 kg/m²; antrenman yaşı: 11.37 ± 4.22 yıl). Cinsiyete bağlı performans farklılıklarını karşılaştırmak amacıyla doğrusal sprint hızı, aerobik kapasite (30-15 Aralıklı Fitness Testi), maksimum şut hızı, bacak sertliği ve reaktif kuvvet indeksi gibi temel fiziksel parametreler değerlendirilmiştir. Sprint (p = 0.000, ES = 2.34), 30-15 IFT (p = 0.005, ES = 1.07), maksimum şut hızı (p = 0.000, ES = 3.31), RSI (p = 0.043, ES = 0.75) ve bacak sertliği (p = 0.007, ES = 1.02) performanslarında cinsiyetler arasında anlamlı farklar bulunmuştur. Kadın futbolcularda, bacak sertliği ile topa vurma hızı arasında negatif korelasyon saptanmıştır (p = 0.017, ES = –8.34); erkek futbolcularda ise RSI (p = 0.013, r = 0.604, ES = 2.47) ve sertlik (p = 0.028, r = 0.548, ES = 1.82) şut hızı ile pozitif ilişkili bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, erkeklerde sertlik, 30-15 IFT performansı ile anlamlı pozitif ilişki göstermiştir (p = 0.049, r = 0.499, ES = 1.98). Erkek futbolcular daha yüksek RSI ve sertlik değerlerine sahipken, bu parametreler performansla daha güçlü ilişkiler göstermiştir. Kadınlarda ise daha düşük kas sertliği teknik becerilere katkı sağlayabilirken, yaralanma riskini artırabileceği görülmüştür. Bu bulgular, performans ve sakatlanma riskine yönelik cinsiyete özgü antrenman yaklaşımlarının önemini ortaya koymaktadır.

References

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  • 2. Adstrum S, Hedley G, Schleip R, Stecco C, Yucesoy CA. Defining the fascial system. J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther, 2017; 21, 173–177.
  • 3. Ajimsha MS, Al-Mudahka NR, Al-Madzhar JA. Effectiveness of myofascial release: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 2015; Jan;19(1):102-12.
  • 4. Amico AD, Morin C, Release M, Performance H. Miyofasyal salınımın insan performansı üzerindeki etkileri, literatür taraması. Miyofasyal Salınım Hum. Perform, 2013; 1, 1–45.
  • 5. Beardsley C, Skarabot J. Effects of self-myofascial release: A systematic review. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies, 2015; 19, 747-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2015.08.007.
  • 6. Borg-Stein J, Simons DG. Focused review: Myofascial pain. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil, 2002; 83, 40–47.
  • 7. Casanova N, Reis JF, Vaz JR, Machado R, Mendes B, Button DC, Pezarat-Correia P, Freitas SR. Effects of roller massager on muscle recovery after exercise induced muscle damage. J Sports Sci, 2018; 36: 56–63.
  • 8. Cheatham SW, Kolber MJ, Cain M, Lee M. The effects of self myofascial release using a foam roll or roller massager on joint range of motion, muscle recovery, and performance: A systematic review. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 2015; 10(6): 827-838.
  • 9. Chen AH, Chiu CH, Hsu CH, Wang IL, Chou KM, Tsai YS, Lin YF, Chen CH. Acute effects of vibration foam rolling warm-up on jump and flexibility asymmetry, agility and frequency speed of kick test performance in taekwondo athletes. Symmetry, 2021; 13, 1664.
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  • 13. Correll S, Field J, Hutchinson H, Mickevicius G, Fitzsimmons A. Smoot B. Relıabılıty and Valıdıty of The Halo Arkıtal Gonıometer for Shoulder Range of Motıon in Healthy Subjects. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2018; Aug;13(4):707–714. PMID: 30140564.
  • 14. D’Amico A, Paolone V. The Effect of Foam Rolling on Recovery between Two Eight Hundred Metre Runs. J. Hum. Kinet, 2017; 57, 97–105.
  • 15. Devlin J, Paton B, Poole L, Sun W, Ferguson C, Wilson J, Kemi OJ. Blood lactate clearance after maximal exercise depends on active recovery intensity. J Sports Med. Phys Fitness, 2014; 54(3), 271-278.
  • 16. Drinkwater EJ, Latella C, Wilsmore C, Bird SP, Skein M. Foam rolling as a recovery tool following eccentric exercise: potential mechanisms underpinning changes in jump performance. Frontiers in Physiology, 2019; 10, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00768.
  • 17. Dupuy O, Douzi W, Theurot D, Bosquet L, Dugué B. An evidence-based approach for choosing post-exercise recovery techniques to reduce markers of muscle damage, soreness, fatigue and inflammation: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 2018; 9, 41-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00403.
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  • 20. Ferreira RM, Martins PN, Goncalves RS. Kendiliğinden Miyofasyal Serbestleştirme Aletlerinin Performans ve İyileşme Üzerindeki Etkileri: Bir Genel İnceleme. Int. J. Exerc. Sci, 2022; 15, 861.
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  • 22. Glänzel MH, Rodrigues DR, Petter GN, Pozzobon D, Vaz MA, Geremia JM. Foam Rolling Acute Effects on Myofascial Tissue Stiffness and Muscle Strength: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Strength Cond. Res, 2022; 10, 1519.
  • 23. Halperin I, Aboodarda SJ, Button DC, Andersen LL, Behm DG. Roller massager improves range of motion of plantar flexor muscles without subsequent decreases in force parameters. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2014; 9: 92-102.
  • 24. İlbak İ, Eken Ö. Köpük silindir aracılığıyla kendi kendine miyofasyal gevşeme tekniğinin fitness sporcuları üzerindeki etkilerinin incelenmesi. Spor Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2022; 8(1): 17-28.
  • 25. Jay K, Sundstrup E, Søndergaard SD, Behm D, Brandt M, Særvoll CA, Jakobsen MD, Andersen LL. Specific and cross over effects of massage for muscle soreness: randomized controlled trial. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2014; Feb;9(1):82-91. PMID: 24567859; PMCID: PMC3924612.
  • 26. Jo E, Juache GA, Saralegui DE, Weng D, Falatoonzadeh S. The acute effects of foam rolling on fatigue-related ımpairments of muscular performance. Sports, 2018; 6(4): 112-120. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040112.
  • 27. Junker D, Stöggl T. The Training Effects of Foam Rolling on Core Strength Endurance, Balance, Muscle Performance and Range of Motion: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Sports Sci Med, 2019; 18:229238.
  • 28. Konrad A, Nakamura M, Tilp M, Donti O, Behm DG. Foam Rolling Training Effects on Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med, 2022; 52, 2523–2535, 23, 61.
  • 29. Kurt C. Gurol B. Nebioğlu IO. Effects of traditional stretching versus self-myofascial release warm-up on physical performance in well-trained female athletes. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 2023.
  • 30. Lee GL, Hua Chu I, Lyu BJ, Chang WD, Chang NJ. Comparison of vibration rolling, nonvibration rolling, and static stretching as a warm-up exercise on flexibility, joint proprioception, muscle strength, and balance in young adults. J Sports Sci, 2018; Nov;36(22):2575-2582. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1469848.
  • 31. Lyu BJ, Lee CL, Chang WD, Chang NJ. Effects of vibration rolling with and without dynamic muscle contraction on ankle range of motion, proprioception, muscle strength and agility in young adults: a crossover study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020; 17: 354.
  • 32. MacDonald GZ, Penney MDH, Mullaley ME, Cuconato AL, Drake CDJ, Behm DG, Button DC. An Acute Bout of Self-Myofascial Release Increases Range of Motion Without a Subsequent Decrease in Muscle Activation or Force. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2013; 27(3): 812-821, March 2013. | DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825c2bc1.
  • 33. Macdonald GZ, Button DC, Drinkwater EJ, Behm DG. Foam rolling as a recovery tool after an intense bout of physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2014; Jan;46(1):131-42. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182a123db. PMID: 24343353.
  • 34. Martinez-Aranda LM, Sanz-Matesanz M, García-Mantilla ED, García-Mantilla FT. Effects of Self-Myofascial Release on Athletes’ Physical Performance: A Systematic Review J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol, 2024; 9(1): 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9010020.
  • 35. Mauntel TC, Clark MA, Padua DA. Effectiveness of Myofascial Release Therapies on Physical Performance Measurements: A Systematic Review. Athl. Train Sport Health Care, 2014; 6, 189–196.
  • 36. Miller JK, Rockey AM. Foam Rollers Show No Increase in the Flexibility of the Hamstring Muscle Group. UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research IX.1-4, 2006.
  • 37. Mohr AR, Long BC, Goad CL. Effect of foam rolling and static stretching on passive hip-flexion range of motion. J Sport Rehabil, 2014; 23: 296-299.
  • 38. Morales-Artacho AJ, Lacourpaille L, Guilhem G. Effects of warm-up on hamstring muscles stiffness: Cycling vs foam rolling. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2017; 27: 1959-1969.
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There are 55 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Sports Training
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Abdullah Kilci 0000-0002-5242-1582

Publication Date August 31, 2025
Submission Date June 1, 2025
Acceptance Date July 22, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 27 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Kilci, A. (2025). Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise, 27(2), 335-342. https://doi.org/10.15314/tsed.1711604
AMA Kilci A. Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players. Turk J Sport Exe. August 2025;27(2):335-342. doi:10.15314/tsed.1711604
Chicago Kilci, Abdullah. “Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players”. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise 27, no. 2 (August 2025): 335-42. https://doi.org/10.15314/tsed.1711604.
EndNote Kilci A (August 1, 2025) Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise 27 2 335–342.
IEEE A. Kilci, “Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players”, Turk J Sport Exe, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 335–342, 2025, doi: 10.15314/tsed.1711604.
ISNAD Kilci, Abdullah. “Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players”. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise 27/2 (August2025), 335-342. https://doi.org/10.15314/tsed.1711604.
JAMA Kilci A. Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players. Turk J Sport Exe. 2025;27:335–342.
MLA Kilci, Abdullah. “Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players”. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise, vol. 27, no. 2, 2025, pp. 335-42, doi:10.15314/tsed.1711604.
Vancouver Kilci A. Sex-Based Differences and Associations in Muscle Stiffness and Reactive Strength Index Among Elite Male and Female Soccer Players. Turk J Sport Exe. 2025;27(2):335-42.

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