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Amerika’da İslamofobi’nin Müslümanların Eğitimine ve Dini Kimliğine Etkisi

Year 2024, Issue: 17, 131 - 143, 28.06.2024
https://doi.org/10.53112/tudear.1462175

Abstract

Müslümanların Batılı devletlerde, özellikle Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde, yaşadıkları İslamofobi tecrübeleri 11 Eylül olaylarından sonra hızla artmaya başlamıştır. Bu çalışma Amerikalı Müslümanların İslamofobi tecrübelerini ve bu tecrübelerin Müslümanların eğitim ve dini kimlikleri üzerindeki etkisini araştırmayı hedeflemektedir. Sistematik literatür taraması kullanılarak yapılan bu araştırma gösteriyor ki, Müslümanların yaşadıkları olumsuzluklar yalnızca Müslüman ve Amerikan kimlikleri arasında uzlaştırmayı zorlaştırmakla kalmamış aynı zamanda Müslüman çocukların düzgün bir eğitim almasını engellemiştir. Neo-ırkçılığın tekrar canlandığı bir dönemde, Müslümanlar Amerika’da düşmanca bakışlardan sınır dışı edilmeye kadar birçok olumsuz durumu tecrübe etmişlerdir. Müslümanlar bu olumsuzluklara Müslüman kimliklerini gizleme yahut kendilerini ve Müslüman olmayanları İslam hakkında eğitme gibi farklı biçimlerde tepkiler vermişlerdir. Müslüman kadınlar eve kapanma, başörtülerini çıkarma ve Amerikan ana akım medyasında olumsuz algılarla karşılaşma gibi talihsiz olaylara maruz kalmışlardır. Müslüman çocuklar ise gerek medyada gerekse okul müfredatındaki İslam’la alakalı yanlışlar yüzünden eğitim hayatında sıkıntılar yaşamışlardır. Her ne kadar Amerika’da İslamofobiyi tamamen bitirmek gerçekçi görünmese de olumsuz etkilerini İslam hakkında iyi bir eğitimle azaltmak mümkündür. Bu eğitim okul dışında Amerikan medyasında bilge Müslümanların sesinin artması, televizyonda İslami eğitim programlarının artması, Amerikan halkının bilinçlendirilmesi ve Amerika’daki Müslümanların kökenleri, Müslümanların bilime katkıları, İslam’ın diğer önemli dinlerle olan benzerliği ve kendi içerisindeki çeşitliliğin okul müfredatına entegre edilmesiyle sağlanabilir.

References

  • Aktaş, M. (2017). AB ülkelerinde islamofobi ve terörizm. Ombudsman Akademik, 7, 127-155. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ombudsmanakademik/issue/37927/440222
  • Alsultany, E. (2013). Arabs and Muslims in the media after 9/11: Representational strategies for a" postrace" era. American Quarterly, 65(1), 161-169. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/503947/summary
  • Arslan, D. A. (2019). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de medya ve İslamofobi. Dünya İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 2019(2), 28-52. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/insan/issue/51180/563365
  • Aslan, A. (2021). İslamofobi Çalışmalarında Kuramsal Yaklaşımlar: Türkçe Makaleler Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 54, 1-26. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/sufesosbil/issue/67386/909767
  • Aydın, M. Z. (2008). Belçika’da İslamofobi ve Müslümanlara Yönelik Ayrımcılik. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(1), 7-32. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/221492
  • Balkaya, M., Cheah, C. S., & Tahseen, M. (2019). The mediating role of multiple group identities in the relations between religious discrimination and Muslim-American adolescents’ adjustment. Journal of Social Issues, 75(2), 538-567.
  • Barkdull, C., Khaja, K., Queiro-Tajalli, I., Swart, A., Cunningham, D., & Dennis, S. (2011). Experiences of Muslims in Four Western Countries Post—9/11. Affilia, 26(2), 139-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109911405491
  • Bevis, T. B. (2002). At a glance: International students in the United States. International Educator 11(3), 12–17.
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77- 101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Brooks, S. (2019). Teaching high school students about Islam in a national context of Islamophobia. The High School Journal, 102(2), 100-117.
  • Çınar, D. (2021). İslamofobi’nin üretilmesinde medyanın rolü. Genç Mütefekkirler Dergisi, 2(2), 288-306. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gemder/issue/66220/1010543
  • Çorbacı, O. K. (2023). Islamobofi in cinema in terms of non-formal religious education. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 26(49), 33-47. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/baunsobed/issue/78213/1173828
  • Er, T., & Ataman, K. (2008). İslamofobi ve Avrupa’da birlikte yaşama tecrübesi üzerine. Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(2), 747-770. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/uluifd/issue/13483/162899
  • Eraqi, M. M. (2015). Inclusion of Arab-Americans and Muslim-Americans within secondary US history textbooks. Journal of International Social Studies, 5(1), 64-80.
  • Gedikoğlu, S. (2018). Fransa’da İslamofobi. Kadim Akademi SBD, 2(2), 135-145. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/kadimsbd/issue/37337/494333
  • Hervik, P. (2013). Racism, neo-racism. In ENAR (Ed.), Recycling Hatred: Racism(s) in Europe Today: A Dialogue between Academics, Equality Experts and Civil Society Activists (pp. 43-52). The European Network Against Racism.
  • Hossain, K. (2017). Islamophobia: What Teachers Can Do to Reduce It in the Classroom. Multicultural Education, 25(1), 35-40. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1170615
  • İlgaz, S. (2023). Avrupa’da Göçmen Karşıtı Tutum ve İslamofobi. Uluslararası Kriz ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(1), 140-166. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1131360
  • Jesson, J., Lacey, F. M., & Matheson, L. (2011). Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques. London: Sage Publications. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4913523&publisher=FZ7200
  • Jilani, I. J.-S. (2015). Muslim American identity under siege: Muslim students’ perspective of American high schools (Doctoral dissertation). Northeastern University.
  • Khan, K., Kunz, R., Kleijnen, J., & Antes, G. (2011). Systematic reviews to support evidence-based medicine. CRC Press. https://books.google.com/books? hl=en&lr=&id=IXX6AQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=systematic+reviews+to+support+medicine&ots=R14E0ciEb8& sig=Ql82yiSsEV8oVT18hlM66ELZhOg
  • Khan, M. A. M. (2000). Muslims and identity politics in America. In Y. Y. Haddad & J. L. Esposito (Ed.), Muslims on the Americanization path (pp. 87-101). Oxford University Press.
  • Kılıç, Ü., & Acar, N. (2021). Algılanan İslamofobi ölçeğinin Türkçeye uyarlanması, geçerlilik ve güvenilirlik çalışması. Türkiye Din Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 12, 175-198. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tudear/issue/67613/992886
  • Kunst, J. R., Sam, D. L., & Ulleberg, P. (2013). Perceived islamophobia: Scale development and validation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(2), 225-237. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176712001204? casa_token=CyioMTnutOUAAAAA:C_M_dvzhLvdQoDnMrKwifCF_6Nvek4-q9dMc36074ZCx1DQ2eu- ECz7lMPTD30oQhCvbMQkQsw
  • Lee, J. J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International student perceptions of discrimination. Higher education, 53(3), 381-409.
  • Maira, S. M. (2009). Missing: Youth, citizenship, and empire after 9/11. Duke University Press.
  • McVickar, A. (2023). Impacts of Microaggressıons and Neo-Racism on Internatıonal Students’sense of Belonging. Journal of Campus Activities Practice and Scholarship, 5(2), 38-49.
  • Panagopoulos, C. (2006). The polls-trends: Arab and Muslim Americans and Islam in the aftermath of 9/11. International Journal of Public Opinion Quarterly, 70(4), 608-624.
  • Peek, L. A. (2003). Reactions and response: Muslim students’ experiences on New York city campuses post 9/11. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 23(2), 271-283. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360200032000139910
  • Peek, L. A. (2005). Becoming Muslim: The development of a religious identity. Sociology of religion, 66(3), 215-242.
  • Ramarajan, D., & Runell, M. (2007). Confronting Islamophobia in education. Intercultural Education, 18(2), 87-97.
  • Reagan, T. (2020). Islam in the United States: Addressing Islamophobia in the public schools. Journal of Education in Muslim Societies, 2(1), 58-80. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/article/811619/summary
  • Saleem, M. M., & Thomas, M. K. (2011). The reporting of the September 11 th terrorist attacks in American social studies textbooks: A Muslim perspective. The High School Journal, 95(1), 15-33.
  • Shirazi, R., & Jaffe-Walter, R. (2021). Conditional hospitality and coercive concern: Countertopographies of Islamophobia in American and Danish schools. Comparative Education, 57(2), 206-226.
  • Sirin, S. R., Bikmen, N., Mir, M., Fine, M., Zaal, M., & Katsiaficas, D. (2008). Exploring dual identification among Muslim- American emerging adults: A mixed methods study. Journal of Adolescence, 31(2), 259-279.
  • Smith, J. I. (2010). Islam in America. Columbia University Press.
  • Spears, A. K. (1999). Race and ideology: An introduction. Race and ideology: Language, symbolism, and popular culture, 11-58.
  • Tonga, H. (2023). Nefret söylemi ve İslamofobi: Fransa basını örneği. Stratejik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7(2), 261-276. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/sisad/issue/79190/1227654
  • Umamaheswar, J. (2015). 9/11 and the evolution of newspaper representations of incarcerated Muslims. Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal, 11(2), 177-199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741659015588403
  • Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2019). Guidance on Conducting a Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 39(1), 93-112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X17723971
  • Zaal, M. (2012). Islamophobia in classrooms, media, and politics. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(6), Article 6.

The Impact of Islamophobia on the Education and Religious Identity of Muslims in the USA

Year 2024, Issue: 17, 131 - 143, 28.06.2024
https://doi.org/10.53112/tudear.1462175

Abstract

The experiences of Islamophobia among Muslims in Western countries, especially in the United States, escalated rapidly following the aftermath of 9/11. This study aims to investigate the Islamophobia experiences of American Muslims and its impact on their education and religious identity. By employing a systematic literature review, this research indicates that the challenges endured by Muslims not only complicated the reconciliation between their Muslim and American identities but also impeded the proper education of Muslim children. In the resurgence of Neo-racism, Muslims have experienced numerous adversities, ranging from hostile stares to the extent of being deported. Muslims have responded to this in various ways, such as hiding their Muslim identities or educating themselves and non-Muslims about Islam. Muslim women have been subjected to unfortunate incidents, including staying indoors, removing their headscarves, and facing negative perceptions in the mainstream American media. Muslim children have encountered difficulties in their education due to misconceptions about Islam both in the media and school curriculum. Although completely eradicating Islamophobia from the USA may be an unrealistic goal, it is feasible to mitigate its adverse impacts through decent education about Islam. This education could be achieved through elevating the voices of knowledgeable Muslims in the American media, increasing Islamic educational programs on TV, raising awareness among the American public, and integrating details about the origins of Muslims in the USA, the contributions of Muslims to science, the similarities of Islam with other major religions in the USA, and the diverse spectrum within Islam into school curriculums.

References

  • Aktaş, M. (2017). AB ülkelerinde islamofobi ve terörizm. Ombudsman Akademik, 7, 127-155. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ombudsmanakademik/issue/37927/440222
  • Alsultany, E. (2013). Arabs and Muslims in the media after 9/11: Representational strategies for a" postrace" era. American Quarterly, 65(1), 161-169. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/503947/summary
  • Arslan, D. A. (2019). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de medya ve İslamofobi. Dünya İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 2019(2), 28-52. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/insan/issue/51180/563365
  • Aslan, A. (2021). İslamofobi Çalışmalarında Kuramsal Yaklaşımlar: Türkçe Makaleler Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 54, 1-26. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/sufesosbil/issue/67386/909767
  • Aydın, M. Z. (2008). Belçika’da İslamofobi ve Müslümanlara Yönelik Ayrımcılik. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(1), 7-32. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/221492
  • Balkaya, M., Cheah, C. S., & Tahseen, M. (2019). The mediating role of multiple group identities in the relations between religious discrimination and Muslim-American adolescents’ adjustment. Journal of Social Issues, 75(2), 538-567.
  • Barkdull, C., Khaja, K., Queiro-Tajalli, I., Swart, A., Cunningham, D., & Dennis, S. (2011). Experiences of Muslims in Four Western Countries Post—9/11. Affilia, 26(2), 139-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109911405491
  • Bevis, T. B. (2002). At a glance: International students in the United States. International Educator 11(3), 12–17.
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77- 101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Brooks, S. (2019). Teaching high school students about Islam in a national context of Islamophobia. The High School Journal, 102(2), 100-117.
  • Çınar, D. (2021). İslamofobi’nin üretilmesinde medyanın rolü. Genç Mütefekkirler Dergisi, 2(2), 288-306. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gemder/issue/66220/1010543
  • Çorbacı, O. K. (2023). Islamobofi in cinema in terms of non-formal religious education. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 26(49), 33-47. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/baunsobed/issue/78213/1173828
  • Er, T., & Ataman, K. (2008). İslamofobi ve Avrupa’da birlikte yaşama tecrübesi üzerine. Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(2), 747-770. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/uluifd/issue/13483/162899
  • Eraqi, M. M. (2015). Inclusion of Arab-Americans and Muslim-Americans within secondary US history textbooks. Journal of International Social Studies, 5(1), 64-80.
  • Gedikoğlu, S. (2018). Fransa’da İslamofobi. Kadim Akademi SBD, 2(2), 135-145. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/kadimsbd/issue/37337/494333
  • Hervik, P. (2013). Racism, neo-racism. In ENAR (Ed.), Recycling Hatred: Racism(s) in Europe Today: A Dialogue between Academics, Equality Experts and Civil Society Activists (pp. 43-52). The European Network Against Racism.
  • Hossain, K. (2017). Islamophobia: What Teachers Can Do to Reduce It in the Classroom. Multicultural Education, 25(1), 35-40. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1170615
  • İlgaz, S. (2023). Avrupa’da Göçmen Karşıtı Tutum ve İslamofobi. Uluslararası Kriz ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(1), 140-166. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1131360
  • Jesson, J., Lacey, F. M., & Matheson, L. (2011). Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques. London: Sage Publications. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4913523&publisher=FZ7200
  • Jilani, I. J.-S. (2015). Muslim American identity under siege: Muslim students’ perspective of American high schools (Doctoral dissertation). Northeastern University.
  • Khan, K., Kunz, R., Kleijnen, J., & Antes, G. (2011). Systematic reviews to support evidence-based medicine. CRC Press. https://books.google.com/books? hl=en&lr=&id=IXX6AQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=systematic+reviews+to+support+medicine&ots=R14E0ciEb8& sig=Ql82yiSsEV8oVT18hlM66ELZhOg
  • Khan, M. A. M. (2000). Muslims and identity politics in America. In Y. Y. Haddad & J. L. Esposito (Ed.), Muslims on the Americanization path (pp. 87-101). Oxford University Press.
  • Kılıç, Ü., & Acar, N. (2021). Algılanan İslamofobi ölçeğinin Türkçeye uyarlanması, geçerlilik ve güvenilirlik çalışması. Türkiye Din Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 12, 175-198. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tudear/issue/67613/992886
  • Kunst, J. R., Sam, D. L., & Ulleberg, P. (2013). Perceived islamophobia: Scale development and validation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(2), 225-237. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176712001204? casa_token=CyioMTnutOUAAAAA:C_M_dvzhLvdQoDnMrKwifCF_6Nvek4-q9dMc36074ZCx1DQ2eu- ECz7lMPTD30oQhCvbMQkQsw
  • Lee, J. J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International student perceptions of discrimination. Higher education, 53(3), 381-409.
  • Maira, S. M. (2009). Missing: Youth, citizenship, and empire after 9/11. Duke University Press.
  • McVickar, A. (2023). Impacts of Microaggressıons and Neo-Racism on Internatıonal Students’sense of Belonging. Journal of Campus Activities Practice and Scholarship, 5(2), 38-49.
  • Panagopoulos, C. (2006). The polls-trends: Arab and Muslim Americans and Islam in the aftermath of 9/11. International Journal of Public Opinion Quarterly, 70(4), 608-624.
  • Peek, L. A. (2003). Reactions and response: Muslim students’ experiences on New York city campuses post 9/11. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 23(2), 271-283. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360200032000139910
  • Peek, L. A. (2005). Becoming Muslim: The development of a religious identity. Sociology of religion, 66(3), 215-242.
  • Ramarajan, D., & Runell, M. (2007). Confronting Islamophobia in education. Intercultural Education, 18(2), 87-97.
  • Reagan, T. (2020). Islam in the United States: Addressing Islamophobia in the public schools. Journal of Education in Muslim Societies, 2(1), 58-80. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/article/811619/summary
  • Saleem, M. M., & Thomas, M. K. (2011). The reporting of the September 11 th terrorist attacks in American social studies textbooks: A Muslim perspective. The High School Journal, 95(1), 15-33.
  • Shirazi, R., & Jaffe-Walter, R. (2021). Conditional hospitality and coercive concern: Countertopographies of Islamophobia in American and Danish schools. Comparative Education, 57(2), 206-226.
  • Sirin, S. R., Bikmen, N., Mir, M., Fine, M., Zaal, M., & Katsiaficas, D. (2008). Exploring dual identification among Muslim- American emerging adults: A mixed methods study. Journal of Adolescence, 31(2), 259-279.
  • Smith, J. I. (2010). Islam in America. Columbia University Press.
  • Spears, A. K. (1999). Race and ideology: An introduction. Race and ideology: Language, symbolism, and popular culture, 11-58.
  • Tonga, H. (2023). Nefret söylemi ve İslamofobi: Fransa basını örneği. Stratejik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7(2), 261-276. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/sisad/issue/79190/1227654
  • Umamaheswar, J. (2015). 9/11 and the evolution of newspaper representations of incarcerated Muslims. Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal, 11(2), 177-199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741659015588403
  • Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2019). Guidance on Conducting a Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 39(1), 93-112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X17723971
  • Zaal, M. (2012). Islamophobia in classrooms, media, and politics. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(6), Article 6.
There are 41 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Religious Education
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Salih Tuzer 0000-0002-5833-0219

Publication Date June 28, 2024
Submission Date March 31, 2024
Acceptance Date May 14, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2024 Issue: 17

Cite

APA Tuzer, S. (2024). The Impact of Islamophobia on the Education and Religious Identity of Muslims in the USA. Türkiye Din Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi(17), 131-143. https://doi.org/10.53112/tudear.1462175

Turkish Journal of Religious Education Studies is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.