Development of Dyscalculia (Difficulty in Learning Mathematics) Parent Identification Scale

Abstract

The aim of this study is to develop a valid and reliable parent-report screening scale, based on parents’ daily observations, to identify the risk of dyscalculia in primary school–aged children at an early stage. Mathematics learning disabilities are a significant condition with negative effects on students' academic achievement and daily life skills. However, the lack of a valid and reliable instrument to assess parental awareness of dyscalculia provided the motivation for this study. Accordingly, the scale was developed to address this gap in the field and was tested using data collected from 741 parents selected through convenience sampling. Participants were selected from low- and middle-socioeconomic backgrounds. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed to determine the construct validity of the scale. Exploratory factor analysis revealed that the scale consists of 17 items and three subscales: academic achievement, daily living skills, and attitude-anxiety. Confirmatory factor analysis conducted with an independent sample indicated that the three-factor structure of the scale demonstrated acceptable model-fit indices (χ²/df = 2.167, CFI = 0.966, RMSEA = 0.040). The internal consistency coefficient of the scale (Cronbach's α = 0.83) was found to be high, and the item-total correlation coefficients were statistically significant. These findings demonstrate that the developed scale is a psychometrically valid and reliable measurement tool. The scale can effectively identify mathematics learning difficulties in primary school students and may assist both parents and educators in raising awareness of dyscalculia. It is expected that the scale will contribute to early identification efforts when used by educators and experts and will increase parental awareness. Furthermore, it is recommended that the scale be validated with different sample groups to inform educational practice and policy.

Keywords

• Dyscalculia
• Mathematics Learning Disability
• Parent Identification Scale

Ethical Statement

All the rules specified in the ‘Directive on Scientific Research and Publication Ethics of Higher Education Institutions’ were complied with in the whole process from planning, implementation, data collection to data analysis of this research. None of the actions specified under the second section of the Directive, ‘Actions Contrary to Scientific Research and Publication Ethics’, have been carried out. In the writing process of this research, scientific, ethical and citation rules were followed; no falsification was made on the collected data. Ethical approval dated 07.03.2025 and numbered E-72321963-050.04-401591 12.03.2025 was obtained from Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee for the research.

Diskalkuli (Matematik Öğrenme Güçlüğü) Veli Tanılama Ölçeği

Abstract

Bu çalışmanın amacı, ilkokul çağındaki çocuklarda diskalkuli riskini erken dönemde belirlemeye yönelik, velilerin günlük gözlemlerine dayanarak kullanabilecekleri geçerli ve güvenilir bir tarama ölçeği geliştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Matematik öğrenme güçlüğü, öğrencilerin akademik başarısını ve günlük yaşam becerilerini olumsuz etkileyen önemli bir durumdur. Ancak, velilerin diskalkuli farkındalığını ölçmeye yönelik geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçeğin eksikliği bu çalışmaya ilham olmuştur. Alandaki bu eksikliği gidermek amacıyla geliştirilen ölçek, 741 öğrenci velisinden uygun örnekleme yöntemiyle toplanan veriler üzerinden test edilmiştir. Katılımcılar düşük ve orta sosyo-ekonomik düzeylerden seçilmiştir. Ölçeğin yapı geçerliğini belirlemek amacıyla açımlayıcı faktör analizi ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi uygulanmıştır. Açımlayıcı faktör analizi sonuçları, ölçeğin akademik başarı, günlük yaşam becerileri ve tutum-kaygı olmak üzere üç alt boyut ve 17 maddeden oluştuğunu göstermiştir. Ayrı bir örneklem ile yapılan doğrulayıcı faktör analizi ise, ölçeğin üç faktörlü yapısının model uyum değerlerinin kabul edilebilir düzeyde olduğunu ortaya koymuştur (χ²/df= 2,167, CFI= 0,966, RMSEA= 0,040). Ölçeğin iç tutarlılık katsayısı (Cronbach's α=0,83) yüksek bulunmuş ve madde-toplam korelasyonlarının istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu bulgular, geliştirilen ölçeğin psikometrik açıdan güvenilir ve geçerli bir ölçüm aracı olduğunu göstermektedir. Geliştirilen ölçek, ilkokul öğrenci velilerinin öğrencilerin matematik öğrenme güçlüğü yaşayıp yaşamadıkları konusundaki durumlarını değerlendirmede etkili bir araç olarak görülebilir. Eğitimciler ve uzmanlar tarafından kullanılarak sürece katkı sunması ve velilere yönelik bilinçlendirme çalışmalarına rehberlik etmesi beklenmektedir. Ayrıca, ölçeğin farklı örneklem gruplarıyla test edilmesi ve eğitim politikalarına yön verebilecek şekilde geliştirilmesi önerilmektedir.

Keywords

• Diskalkuli
• Matematik Öğrenme Güçlüğü
• Veli Tanılama Ölçeği

Ethical Statement

Bu araştırmanın planlanmasından, uygulanmasına, verilerin toplanmasından verilerin analizine kadar olan tüm süreçte “Yükseköğretim Kurumları Bilimsel Araştırma ve Yayın Etiği Yönergesi” kapsamında uyulması belirtilen tüm kurallara uyulmuştur. Yönergenin ikinci bölümü olan “Bilimsel Araştırma ve Yayın Etiğine Aykırı Eylemler” başlığı altında belirtilen eylemlerden hiçbiri gerçekleştirilmemiştir. Bu araştırmanın yazım sürecinde bilimsel, etik ve alıntı kurallarına uyulmuş; toplanan veriler üzerinde herhangi bir tahrifat yapılmamıştır. Araştırma için Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Etik Kurulu'ndan 07.03.2025 tarih ve E-72321963-050.04-401591 12.03.2025 sayılı etik onay alınmıştır.

References

1. Abdou, R., Hamouda, N., & Fawzy, A. (2020). Validity and reliability of the arabic dyscalculia test in diagnosing egyptian dyscalculic school-age children. The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology, 36(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43163-020-00020-6
2. Alfiah, A. (2023). Reconnecting learning: an educational alternative for dyscalculia children in elementary school. Elementary School Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Pembelajaran Ke-Sd-An, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.31316/esjurnal.v10i1.4114
3. Amelia, W., & Supena, A. (2022). Mathematics learning strategy for discalculia students in elementary school. Jurnal Kependidikan Jurnal Hasil Penelitian Dan Kajian Kepustakaan Di Bidang Pendidikan Pengajaran Dan Pembelajaran, 8(1), 209. https://doi.org/10.33394/jk.v8i1.4700
4. American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diognostic and statiscal manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
5. Andrade-Arenas, L. (2024). Expert system for diagnosing learning disorders in children. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE), 14(3), 2965. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v14i3.pp2965-2975
6. Anjum, S. (2023). Unraveling the lived experiences: mathematics learning challenges and coping strategies of dyscalculia students. Journal of Business and Social Review in Emerging Economies, 9(3), 273-286. https://doi.org/10.26710/jbsee.v9i3.2722
7. Aquil, M., & Ariffin, M. (2020). The causes, prevalence and interventions for dyscalculia in Malaysia. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 10(6), 279. https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr-2020-0126
8. Aunio, P., & Räsänen, P. (2015). Core numerical skills for learning mathematics in children aged five to eight years – a working model for educators. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 24(5), 684-704. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293x.2014.996424

9. Baldemir, B., & Tutak, T. (2022). Türki̇ye'de di̇skalkuli̇ üzeri̇ne yapilan çalişmalarin i̇ncelenmesi̇. Journal of History School, 15(60), 2815-2833. https://doi.org/10.29228/joh.62852
10. Baldemir, B., İç, Ü., & Tutak, T. (2022). İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının diskalkuliye i̇lişkin görüşleri. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(1), 485-505. https://doi.org/10.17240/aibuefd.2022..-998739
11. Baumgartner, H., & Homburg, C. (1996). Applications of structural equation modeling in marketing and consumer research: a review. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13, 139-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(95)00038-0
12. Bayram, N. (2009). Sosyal bilimlerde SPSS ile veri analizi. Ezgi Kitabevi.
13. Bellon, E., Bergen, E., & Dowker, A. (2022). Is parental mathematics anxiety associated with young children’s arithmetical performance?. Education Sciences, 12(11), 812. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12110812
14. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136-162). Sage Publications..
15. Butterworth, B. (2005). Developmental dyscalculia. In J. I. D. Campbell (Ed.), Handbook of mathematical cognition (pp. 455–467). Psychology Press.
16. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2021). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı: İstatistik, araştırma deseni SPSS uygulamaları ve yorum (29. baskı). Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık.
17. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Akgün, Ö. E., Demirel, F., Karadeniz, Ş., & Çakmak, E. K. (2024). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (36.Baskı). Pegem Akademi.
18. Byrne, B. M. (2013). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge Publications. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203807644
19. Comrey, A. L., & Lee, H. B. (2013). A first course in factor analysis. Psychology press.
20. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications.
21. Decarli, G., Sella, F., Lanfranchi, S., Gerotto, G., Gerola, S., Cossu, G., … & Zorzi, M. (2022). Severe developmental dyscalculia is characterized by core deficits in both symbolic and nonsymbolic number sense. Psychological Science, 34(1), 8-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976221097947
22. Devine, A., Hill, F., Carey, E., & Szűcs, D. (2018). Cognitive and emotional math problems largely dissociate: prevalence of developmental dyscalculia and mathematics anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(3), 431-444. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000222
23. Dolfi, S., Decarli, G., Lunardon, M., De Filippo De Grazia, M., Gerola, S., Lanfranchi, S., ... & Zorzi, M. (2024). Weaker number sense accounts for impaired numerosity perception in dyscalculia: Behavioral and computational evidence. Developmental Science, 27(6), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13538
24. Dowker, A. (2024). Developmental dyscalculia in relation to individual differences in mathematical abilities. Children, 11(6), 623. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11060623
25. Erkuş, A. (2003). Psikometri üzerine yazılar. Türk Psikologlar Derneği.
26. Erkuş, A. (2012). Psikometri: Güvenirlik ve geçerlik üzerine. Pegem Akademi.
27. Field, A. (2024). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Sage publications limited.
28. Filiz, T. (2021). Matematik öğrenme güçlüğü yaşayan öğrencilere yönelik öğretimsel müdahalelerin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına etkisinin i̇ncelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 22(4), 1025-1055. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.713496
29. Firmasari, S., Herman, T., & Dewi, I. (2021). Dyscalculia: mathematical difficulties in the concept of multiplication using word problems. Jurnal Inspirasi Pendidikan, 11(2), 113-121. https://doi.org/10.21067/jip.v11i2.5852
30. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
31. Geary, D. C. (1993) Mathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components. Psychological Bulletin, 114(2), 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.345
32. Geary, D. C., Hoard, M., Nugent, L., & Bailey, D. (2012). Mathematical cognition deficits in children with learning disabilities and persistent low achievement: a five-year prospective study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(1), 206-223. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025398
33. Grant, J., & Siegel, L. (2020). From schools to scans: a neuroeducational approach to comorbid math and reading disabilities. Frontiers in Public Health, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00469
34. Günay Aksoy, Ş. (2019). Specific learning disorder -a life long difficulty. İstanbul Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Tıp Dergisi, 11(1), 34-39. https://doi.org/10.5222/iksstd.2019.88609
35. Haberstroh, S., & Schulte‐Körne, G. (2019). The diagnosis and treatment of dyscalculia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2019.0107
36. Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
37. Hart, S., Ganley, C., & Purpura, D. (2016). Understanding the home math environment and its role in predicting parent report of children’s math skills. Plos One, 11(12), e0168227. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168227 https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/2018-07-07 . Erişim tarihi: 09.01.2024.
38. Huang, Q., Zhang, X., Liu, Y., Yang, W., & Song, Z. (2017). The contribution of parent–child numeracy activities to young chinese children's mathematical ability. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 328-344. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12152
39. Jay, T., Rose, J., & Simmons, B. (2018). Why is parental involvement in children’s mathematics learning hard? parental perspectives on their role supporting children’s learning. Sage Open, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018775466
40. Karbasdehi, E., Abolghasemi, A., & Khanzadeh, A. (2019). The effect of self-regulation empowerment program training on neurocognitive and social skills in students with dyscalculia. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 21(2), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.12740/app/103051
41. Kaufmann, L., & Aster, M. (2012). The diagnosis and management of dyscalculia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2012.0767
42. Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation modeling: A researcher’s guide. Sage Publications.
43. Kuhn, J. (2015). Developmental dyscalculia. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie, 223(2), 69-82. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000205
44. LeFevre, J., Skwarchuk, S., Smith‐Chant, B., Fast, L., Kamawar, D., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Home numeracy experiences and children’s math performance in the early school years.. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 41(2), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014532
45. Lewis, S. (2015). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Health Promotion Practice, 16(4), 473-475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839915580941
46. Luoni, C., Scorza, M., Stefanelli, S., Fagiolini, B., & Termine, C. (2022). A neuropsychological profile of developmental dyscalculia: the role of comorbidity. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(4), 310-323. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194221102925
47. Mahmud, M., Zainal, M., Rosli, R., & Maat, S. (2020). Dyscalculia: what we must know about students' learning disability in mathematics?. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(12B), 8214-8222. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.082625
48. Martadinata, I. (2024). Axiological review of the philosophy of defense science in efforts to improve national defense capabilities. Jurnal Multidisiplin Madani, 4(3), 473-480. https://doi.org/10.55927/mudima.v4i3.8368
49. May, Y., Ahmad, N., Singh, C., & Wong, W. (2023). The design and development of a dyscalculia checklist based on a focus group interview. British Journal of Special Education, 50(3), 403-412. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12474
50. Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Myers, G. F. (2003). Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 218-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-003-0011-7
51. Messenger, C., Emerson, J., & Bird, R. (2007). Dyscalculia in harrow. Mathematics Teaching Incorporating Micromath, 204, 37–39.
52. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (MEB). (2018). Özel eğitim hizmetleri yönetmeliği. Resmi Gazete (Sayı: 30299).
53. Monei, T., & Pedro, A. (2017). A systematic review of interventions for children presenting with dyscalculia in primary schools. Educational Psychology in Practice, 33(3), 277-293. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2017.1289076
54. Mumcu, T. and Aydoğan, Y. (2022). Okul öncesi dönemde matematik becerilerinin kazanımına ilişkin ebeveyn görüşlerinin incelenmesi. Anatolian Journal of Health Research, 3(2), 38-43. https://doi.org/10.29228/anatoljhr.58200
55. Mutaf-Yıldız, B., Sasanguie, D., Smedt, B., & Reynvoet, B. (2020). Probing the relationship between home numeracy and children's mathematical skills: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02074
56. Mutlu, Y. (2020). Gelişimsel diskalkuli nedir?. Mutlu, Y., Olkun, S., Akgün, L., & Sarı, M.H. (Ed.), Diskalkuli: Matematik öğrenme güçlüğü tanımı özellikleri yaygınlığı nedenleri ve tanılanması içinde. Pegem Akademi. https://doi.org/10.14527/9786257228664
57. Mutlu, Y., & Akgün, L. (2019). Matematik öğrenme güçlüğünü tanılamada yeni bir model önerisi: Çoklu süzgeç modeli. İlköğretim Online, 16(3), 1153–1173. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2017.330247
58. Öztürk, M., Durmaz, B., & Can, D. (2019). The effect of number talks on number senses' of dyscalculic middle school students'. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 27(6), 2467-2480. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.3337
59. Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Routledge.
60. Patricia, F., & Zamzam, K. (2021). Development of scientific approach-based interactive multimedia for elementary school dyscalculia children. Jurnal Prima Edukasia, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.21831/jpe.v9i1.33853
61. Price, G., & Ansari, D. (2013). Dyscalculia: Characteristics, causes, and treatments. Numeracy, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.5038/1936-4660.6.1.2
62. Purpura, D., King, Y., Rolan, E., Hornburg, C., Schmitt, S., Hart, S., … & Ganley, C. (2020). Examining the factor structure of the home mathematics environment to delineate its role in predicting preschool numeracy, mathematical language, and spatial skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01925
63. Ratnaningsih, N., Arhasy, E., & Hidayat, E. (2019). The analysis of dyscalculia students learning difficulty in inclusive education of primary school level in tasikmalaya. Jetl (Journal of Education Teaching and Learning), 4(1), 238. https://doi.org/10.26737/jetl.v4i1.997
64. Ribner, A., Silver, A., Elliott, L., & Libertus, M. (2022). Exploring effects of an early math intervention: the importance of parent–child interaction. Child Development, 94(2), 395-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13867
65. Ribner, A., Silver, A., Elliott, L., & Libertus, M. (2022). Exploring effects of an early math intervention: the importance of parent–child interaction. Child Development, 94(2), 395-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13867
66. Saygılı, S. (2017). Diskalkuli ile baş etme üzerine bir derleme. Sınırsız Eğitim ve Araştırma Dergisi, 2(3), 34-56. https://doi.org/10.29250/sead.337315
67. Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of psychological research online, 8(2), 23-74.
68. Seçer, İ. (2017). SPSS ve LISREL ile pratik veri analizi. Anı Yayıncılık.
69. Shalev, R. S. (2004). Developmental dyscalculia. Journal of Child Neurology, 19(10), 765-771. https://doi.org/10.1177/08830738040190100601
70. Shalev, R. S., & Gross‐Tsur, V. (2001). Developmental dyscalculia. Pediatric Neurology, 24(5), 337-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-8994(00)00258-7
71. Shalev, R. S., Manor, O., & Gross-Tsur, V. (1997). Neuropsychological aspects of developmental dyscalculia. Mathematical Cognition, 33, 105–120.
72. Singh, K., Junnarkar, M., & Kaur, J. (2016). Measures of positive psychology, development and validation. Springer Yeni Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-3631-3
73. Skagerlund, K., & Träff, U. (2014). Number processing and heterogeneity of developmental dyscalculia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(1), 36-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414522707
74. Susac, A., & Braeutigam, S. (2014). A case for neuroscience in mathematics education. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00314
75. Susperreguy, M., Burr, S., Xu, C., Douglas, H., & LeFevre, J. (2020). Children’s home numeracy environment predicts growth of their early mathematical skills in kindergarten. Child Development, 91(5), 1663-1680. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13353
76. Susperreguy, M., Burr, S., Xu, C., Douglas, H., & LeFevre, J. (2020). Children’s home numeracy environment predicts growth of their early mathematical skills in kindergarten. Child Development, 91(5), 1663-1680. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13353
77. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. (Fourth Edition). Harper Collins Publishers.
78. Tavşancıl, E. (2005). Tutumların ölçülmesi ve SPSS ile veri analizi. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
79. Tezbaşaran, A. (1997). Likert tipi ölçek geliştirme kılavuzu. Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları.
80. Vigna, G., Ghidoni, E., Burgio, F., Danesin, L., Angelini, D., Benavides-Varela, S., … & Semenza, C. (2022). Dyscalculia in early adulthood: implications for numerical activities of daily living. Brain Sciences, 12(3), 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12030373
81. Vintere, A. (2021). A study on learning difficulties related to dyscalculia and mathematical anxiety. Research For Rural Development, 36, 330-336. https://doi.org/10.22616/rrd.27.2021.047
82. Visscher, A., & Noël, M. (2014). Arithmetic facts storage deficit: the hypersensitivity‐to‐interference in memory hypothesis. Developmental Science, 17(3), 434-442. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12135
83. Von Aster, M. G., & Shalev, R. S. (2007). Number development and developmental dyscalculia. Developmental medicine & child neurology, 49(11), 868-873. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00868.x
84. Wang’ang’a, A. (2023). Dyscalculia in kenyan schools: implications for transition to higher education and employment: Literature review. East African Journal of Education Studies, 6(2), 121-138. https://doi.org/10.37284/eajes.6.2.1254
85. Wei, W., Wang, Q., Luo, Q., & Li, Y. (2022). Cross-lagged relationship between home numeracy practices and early mathematical skills among chinese young children. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1033065
86. Wittenberg, E. (2011). The effect of time of onset on community preferences for health states: An exploratory study. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-9-6
87. Yıldız, D., & Uzunsakal, E. (2018). Alan araştırmalarında güvenirlik testlerinin karşılaştırılması ve tarımsal veriler üzerine bir uygulama. Uygulamalı Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2(1), 14-28.
88. Yıldız, E., Öğütcen, A., & Akman, B. (2023). The mathematics process in home environments of preschool children in the covid-19 pandemic: views of parents. International E-Journal of Educational Studies, 7(15), 657-672. https://doi.org/10.31458/iejes.1336919
89. Yoong, S. (2022). A survey on problems of dyscalculia in primary schools. ICCCM JSSH, 1(2), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.53797/icccmjssh.v1i2.4.2022
90. Yoong, S., & Hoe, F. (2022). Teachers’ efficacy to teach students with mathematics learning difficulties. Journal of Mathematics Instruction Social Research and Opinion, 1(3), 117-130. https://doi.org/10.58421/misro.v1i3.29
91. Yoong, S., Ahmad, N., Singh, C., & Wong, W. (2023). The design and development of a dyscalculia checklist based on a focus group interview. British Journal of Special Education, 50(3), 403-412. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12474
92. Zygouris, N., Vlachos, F., Dadaliaris, A., Oikonomou, P., Stamoulis, G., Vavougios, G., … & Striftou, A. (2017). A neuropsychological approach of developmental dyscalculia and a screening test via a web application. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (Ijep), 7(4), 51-65. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v7i4.7434