Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

An Investigation into the Cognitive Developmental Stages and Scientific Reasoning Characteristics of Children Aged 7-11

Year 2025, Volume: 38 Issue: 3, 593 - 624
https://doi.org/10.19171/uefad.1595025

Abstract

Many countries have structured their educational systems based on Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. However, Piaget also emphasized that development is influenced by culture and that the age ranges for cognitive stages may vary across different cultural contexts. Therefore, it is essential to understand the developmental stages of children within a specific country before designing educational levels, developing instructional materials, or implementing teacher training programs. Otherwise, the quality and effectiveness of a country's educational system may be compromised. This study investigated the cognitive development stages and scientific reasoning characteristics of children aged 7 to 11. The sample consisted of 45 students, divided into five age groups. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and observation forms. The interview questions were based on two thought experiments from the social sciences. A total of 90 interviews were conducted, and 765 responses were analyzed using a qualitative data analysis program. The results indicated that all age groups exhibited the four types of scientific reasoning—abductive, inductive, deductive, and hypothetico-deductive—in varying frequencies and proportions. Additionally, the preoperational stage was found to persist until age 9, and the absence of clear indicators of the concrete operational stage suggests that it may begin around that age. Based on these results, recommendations are provided for the structuring of educational practices.

References

  • Acar, H. (2013). Fizik öğrencilerinin düşünme deneyleri ile düşünme süreçlerinin incelenmesi (Yayın No. 349941). [Yüksek lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi]. YÖK.
  • Ateş, M.E (2015). Bilimlerde düşünce deneyleri. Mediterranean Journal of Humanities, 1, 125–138.
  • Ateş, S. (Ed.). (2019). Bilimsel muhakeme (Akıl yürütme). Palme Yayınevi.
  • Ateşman, E. (1997). Türkçede okunabilirliğin ölçülmesi. Ankara University Dil Dergisi, 57, 71-74
  • Aydın, B. (2020). Gelişimin doğası. B. Yeşilyaprak (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi: Gelişim-öğrenme-öğretim içinde (ss. 29-55). Pegem Akademi.
  • Bağcıoğlu Ünver, G. (2016). Gelişimle ilgili temel kavramlar, gelişimin temel ilkeleri ve gelişimi etkileyen faktörler. A. Ulusoy (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi içinde (s. 30-47). Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Bjorklund, D.F. (2000). Children’s thinking: Developmental function and individual differences. Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
  • Bruner, J.S. (1960). The process of education. Vintage Books.
  • Chen, Z. & Klahr, D. (1999). All other things being equal: acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy. Child Development, 70 (5), 1098–1120.
  • Corcoran, J. (1989). Mantık ve etiğin ayrılmaz birlikteliği. (V. Duran-2018, Çev.). Disiplinlerarası Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(3), 1-7.
  • Cramer-Petersen, C. L., Christensen, B.T & Ahmed-Kristensen, S. (2019). Empirically analysing design reasoning patterns: Abductive-deductive reasoning patterns dominate design idea generation. Elsevier-Design Studies, 60(C), 39–70.
  • Çeçen Eroğul, R. A. (2021). Bilişsel gelişim ve dil gelişimi. M.E. Deniz (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi içinde (s. 83-136). Pegem Akademi.
  • Çüçen, A. K. (2021). Klasik mantık. Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Dasen, P.R. (2018). Cross-cultural research on spatial concept development. Cognitive Processing, 19 (1), 93–99.
  • Demir, Ö. (2017). Bilim felsefesi. Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Drummond, C., & Fischhoff, B. (2017). Development and validation of the scientific reasoning scale. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 30, 26–28.
  • Durhan, G. (2020). Günlük yaşamda kullanılan bir düşünme biçimi olarak abdüktif akıl yürütme. Beytulhikme International Journal of Philosophy, 10(2), 663–675.
  • Dzainudin, M., Yamat, H. & Yunus, F. (2018). Emerging young children’s thinking through social and cognitive development in the project approach. Scientific Research Publishing, 9, 2137–2147.
  • Emiroğlu, İ. (2022). Klasik mantığa giriş. Elis Yayınları.
  • European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice. (2022). The structure of the European education systems 2022/2023: schematic diagrams. Eurydice Facts and Figures. Publications Office of the European Union. https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/media/2843/download
  • Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education. McGraw-Hill.
  • Gauvin, M. & Richard, R. (2016). Cognitive development. H. S. Friedman (Eds.), In Encyclopedia of Mental Health (pp. 317–323). Academic Press.
  • Gendler, T. S. (2000). Thought experiment: On the powers and limits of imaginary cases. Garland.
  • Georgiou, A. (2005). Thought experiments in physics problem solving on intuition and imagistic stimulation. [Master of Philosophy Thesis]. Cambridge University Faculty of Education.
  • Gliner, J.A., Morgan, G.A. & Leech, N.L. (2009). Research methods in applied settings-An integrated approach to design and analysis. Routledge.
  • Godfrey Smith, P. (2003). Theory and reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science. The University of Chicago Press.
  • Greenfield, M. P. (2018). Studying social change, culture and human development: A theoretical framework and methodological guidelines. Developmental Review, 5(3).
  • Hanson N.R. (1958). The logic of discovery. The Journal of Philosophy, 55(25), 1073–1089.
  • Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. Basic.
  • İnanç, B.Y., Bilgin, M. & Atıcı, M.K. (2015). Gelişim psikolojisi: çocuk ve ergen gelişimi. Pegem Akademi.
  • Kind, P. V., & Osborne, J. (2017). Style of scientific reasoning: A cultural rationale for science education. Science Education, 101 (1), 8-31.
  • Klahr, D., Fay, A., & Dunbar, K. (1993). Heuristics for scientific experimentation: A developmental study. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 111–146.
  • Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
  • Lakatos, I. (2014). Bilimsel araştırma programlarının metodolojisi. (D. Uygun, Çev.), Alfa Bilim. (Eserin orijinali 1978’te yayınlandı).
  • Lattery, M.J. (2001). Thought experiments in physics education: A simple and practical example. Science & Education, 10, 485–492.
  • Lawson, A. E. (1978). The development and validation of a classroom test of formal reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15, 11–24.
  • Leech, N.L & Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2007). An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation. School Psychology Quarterly, 22 (4), 557–584.
  • Losike-Sedimo, N. (2018). Mother’s influence on cognitive development: a cultural perspective. Advances In Social Science Research Journal, 5(1), 310–324.
  • Mach, E. (1905/1976). On thought experiment (T. J. McCormack & P. Foulkes, Trans.). In Knowledge and error (pp. 134–147). D. Reidel.
  • McGregor, S. L. T. (2014). Abductive reasoning in everyday life: Implications for home economics. Kappa Omicron Nu FORUM, 19(1).
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2019). PISA 2018 Türkiye ön raporu (Eğitim Analiz ve Değerlendirme Raporları Serisi, 10). https://pisa.meb.gov.tr/
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2018). Hayat bilgisi dersi öğretim programı (İlkokul 1, 2 ve 3. Sınıflar). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Ankara. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=326
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2018). Sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı (İlkokul ve ortaokul 4, 5, 6 ve 7. Sınıflar). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, Ankara. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=354
  • Morris, B. J., Croker, S., Masnick, A. M., & Zimmerman, C. (2012). The emergence of scientific reasoning. H. Kloos, B. J. Morris, & J. L. Amaral (Eds.), In current topics in children’s learning and cognition (pp. 61–82). InTech.
  • Musgrave, A. (2009). Popper and hypothetico-deductivism. D.M. Gabbay, P. Thagard, & J. Woods (Eds.), In Handbook of the History of Logic, 10, (pp.205–235). Elsevier BV.
  • National Information Center for Academic Recognition, Japan. (2023, Ocak). Japanese Education System. https://www.nicjp.niad.ac.jp/en/japanese-system/about.html
  • Piaget, J. (1928). Judgment and reasoning in the child. Edinburgh Press.
  • Piaget, J. (2016). Çocuğun gözüyle dünya. (İ. Yerguz, Çev.). Dost Kitabevi Yayınları. (Eserin orijinali 1947’de yayınlandı).
  • Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic.
  • Roadrangka, V., Yeany, R. H., & Padilla, M. J. (1982). Group test of logical thinking. University of Georgia.
  • Rothchild, I. (2006). Induction, deduction and the scientific method: An eclectic overview of the practice of science. Society for the Study of Reproduction, Inc.
  • Sarıtaş, D. (2012). Periyodik sistemin öğretim sürecinde oluşan rasyonel bilginin; üretimi, epistemolojisi ve metodolojisi (Yayın No. 328846). [Doktora tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi]. YÖK.
  • Senemoğlu, N. (2018). Gelişim öğrenme ve öğretim: kuramdan uygulamaya. Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Shayer, M. & Adey, P. (1981). Improving standards and the national curriculum. School Science Review, 17–23.
  • Sorensen, R.A. (1992). Thought experiments. Oxford University Press.
  • Sprenger, J. (2011). Hypothetico-deductive confirmation. Philosophy Compass, 6, 497–508.
  • Stammen, N., Malone, L. & Irving, E. (2018). Effects of modeling instruction professional development on biology teachers’ scientific reasoning skills. Education Science, 8(119).
  • Tobin, K.G. & Capie, W. (1981). The development and validation of a group test of logical thinking. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41, 413-423.
  • Tüysüz, M., & Tüzün, Ü.N. (2020). Astronomi-Kimya düşünce deneyleri temelli argümantasyonun özel yetenekli öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerileri üzerine etkisi. Erzincan University Journal of Education Faculty (EUJEF), 22(3), 818-836.
  • U.S. Department of Education. (2023, Ocak). The structure of education in the United States. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d01/fig1.asp
  • Wilhelm, J., Cole, M., Cohen, C. & Lindell, R. (2018). How middle level science teachers visualize and translate motion, scale, and geometric space of the Earth-Moon-Sun system with their students. Physical Review Physics Education Research 14 (1).
  • Wadsworth, B. (1975). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and effective development. Pearson College.
  • Yıldırım, C. (2014). Bilimsel düşünme yöntemi. İmge Kitabevi.
  • Yıldız, M.C ve Aydemir, C. (2016). Sosyal bilimlerde / sosyolojide sosyal kuram-sosyal pratik ilişkisi ve uygulamalı araştırma bulgularının yorumlanmasına ilişkin bazı problemler. Dicle University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 6(10), 1-15.
  • Yin, R.K. (2011). Applications of case study research. Sage Publications
  • Zimmerman, C. (2000). The development of scientific reasoning skills. Developmental Review, 20, 99–149.
  • Zimmerman, C. (2005). The development of scientific reasoning skills: what psychologists contribute to an understanding of elementary science learning. Final Draft of a Report to the National Research Council Committee on Science Learning Kindergarten through Eight Grade.

7-11 Yaş Arası Çocukların Bilişsel Gelişim Evreleri ve Bilimsel Akıl Yürütme Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi

Year 2025, Volume: 38 Issue: 3, 593 - 624
https://doi.org/10.19171/uefad.1595025

Abstract

Birçok ülke eğitim sistemlerini Jean Piaget tarafından geliştirilen bilişsel gelişim aşamalarına dayandırmıştır. Ancak Piaget, gelişimin kültürden etkilendiğini ve bilişsel gelişim yaş aralıklarının kültürler arasında farklılık gösterebileceğini de savunmaktadır. Bu nedenle, eğitim seviyelerini belirlemeden, eğitim materyallerini ve öğretmen eğitimi programlarını geliştirmeden önce bir ülkedeki çocukların gelişim aşamalarını bilmenin önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Aksi takdirde, o ülkenin eğitim sistemi olumsuz etkilenebilir. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmada 7-11 yaş arası çocukların bilimsel akıl yürütme ve bilişsel gelişim aşamalarına ilişkin özellikleri araştırılmıştır. Çalışma grubu, 7-11 yaşları arasında her yaş grubunda alt, orta ve yüksek sosyo-ekonomik düzeylerde bulunan üçer öğrenci olmak üzere toplam 45 öğrenciden oluşmaktadır. Veriler yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme ve gözlem formu kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu, sosyal bilimlerde hazırlanan iki düşünce deneyine bağlı sorulardan oluşmuştur. Toplam 90 görüşme yapılmış ve 765 yanıt nitel veri analizi programı kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Sonuçlar, her yaş grubunun dört bilimsel akıl yürütme yöntemi (abdüktif, tümevarım, tümdengelim ve hipotetik-tümdengelim) özelliklerini değişen sayı ve oranlarda sergilediğini göstermiştir. Ayrıca, çalışma grubunda işlem öncesi dönemin 9 yaşına kadar devam ettiği ve somut işlemler dönemi özelliklerinin gözlenmediği, somut işlemler döneminin 9 yaş civarında başladığı görülmüştür. Çalışma grubundaki öğrenciler 11 yaşına kadar halen orta ve düşük düzeyde somut işlemler dönemi özellikleri gösterdikleri için soyut işlemler dönemi özelliklerinin başladığı yaşa ilişkin bilgi sağlanamamıştır.

References

  • Acar, H. (2013). Fizik öğrencilerinin düşünme deneyleri ile düşünme süreçlerinin incelenmesi (Yayın No. 349941). [Yüksek lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi]. YÖK.
  • Ateş, M.E (2015). Bilimlerde düşünce deneyleri. Mediterranean Journal of Humanities, 1, 125–138.
  • Ateş, S. (Ed.). (2019). Bilimsel muhakeme (Akıl yürütme). Palme Yayınevi.
  • Ateşman, E. (1997). Türkçede okunabilirliğin ölçülmesi. Ankara University Dil Dergisi, 57, 71-74
  • Aydın, B. (2020). Gelişimin doğası. B. Yeşilyaprak (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi: Gelişim-öğrenme-öğretim içinde (ss. 29-55). Pegem Akademi.
  • Bağcıoğlu Ünver, G. (2016). Gelişimle ilgili temel kavramlar, gelişimin temel ilkeleri ve gelişimi etkileyen faktörler. A. Ulusoy (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi içinde (s. 30-47). Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Bjorklund, D.F. (2000). Children’s thinking: Developmental function and individual differences. Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
  • Bruner, J.S. (1960). The process of education. Vintage Books.
  • Chen, Z. & Klahr, D. (1999). All other things being equal: acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy. Child Development, 70 (5), 1098–1120.
  • Corcoran, J. (1989). Mantık ve etiğin ayrılmaz birlikteliği. (V. Duran-2018, Çev.). Disiplinlerarası Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(3), 1-7.
  • Cramer-Petersen, C. L., Christensen, B.T & Ahmed-Kristensen, S. (2019). Empirically analysing design reasoning patterns: Abductive-deductive reasoning patterns dominate design idea generation. Elsevier-Design Studies, 60(C), 39–70.
  • Çeçen Eroğul, R. A. (2021). Bilişsel gelişim ve dil gelişimi. M.E. Deniz (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi içinde (s. 83-136). Pegem Akademi.
  • Çüçen, A. K. (2021). Klasik mantık. Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Dasen, P.R. (2018). Cross-cultural research on spatial concept development. Cognitive Processing, 19 (1), 93–99.
  • Demir, Ö. (2017). Bilim felsefesi. Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Drummond, C., & Fischhoff, B. (2017). Development and validation of the scientific reasoning scale. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 30, 26–28.
  • Durhan, G. (2020). Günlük yaşamda kullanılan bir düşünme biçimi olarak abdüktif akıl yürütme. Beytulhikme International Journal of Philosophy, 10(2), 663–675.
  • Dzainudin, M., Yamat, H. & Yunus, F. (2018). Emerging young children’s thinking through social and cognitive development in the project approach. Scientific Research Publishing, 9, 2137–2147.
  • Emiroğlu, İ. (2022). Klasik mantığa giriş. Elis Yayınları.
  • European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice. (2022). The structure of the European education systems 2022/2023: schematic diagrams. Eurydice Facts and Figures. Publications Office of the European Union. https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/media/2843/download
  • Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education. McGraw-Hill.
  • Gauvin, M. & Richard, R. (2016). Cognitive development. H. S. Friedman (Eds.), In Encyclopedia of Mental Health (pp. 317–323). Academic Press.
  • Gendler, T. S. (2000). Thought experiment: On the powers and limits of imaginary cases. Garland.
  • Georgiou, A. (2005). Thought experiments in physics problem solving on intuition and imagistic stimulation. [Master of Philosophy Thesis]. Cambridge University Faculty of Education.
  • Gliner, J.A., Morgan, G.A. & Leech, N.L. (2009). Research methods in applied settings-An integrated approach to design and analysis. Routledge.
  • Godfrey Smith, P. (2003). Theory and reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science. The University of Chicago Press.
  • Greenfield, M. P. (2018). Studying social change, culture and human development: A theoretical framework and methodological guidelines. Developmental Review, 5(3).
  • Hanson N.R. (1958). The logic of discovery. The Journal of Philosophy, 55(25), 1073–1089.
  • Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. Basic.
  • İnanç, B.Y., Bilgin, M. & Atıcı, M.K. (2015). Gelişim psikolojisi: çocuk ve ergen gelişimi. Pegem Akademi.
  • Kind, P. V., & Osborne, J. (2017). Style of scientific reasoning: A cultural rationale for science education. Science Education, 101 (1), 8-31.
  • Klahr, D., Fay, A., & Dunbar, K. (1993). Heuristics for scientific experimentation: A developmental study. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 111–146.
  • Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
  • Lakatos, I. (2014). Bilimsel araştırma programlarının metodolojisi. (D. Uygun, Çev.), Alfa Bilim. (Eserin orijinali 1978’te yayınlandı).
  • Lattery, M.J. (2001). Thought experiments in physics education: A simple and practical example. Science & Education, 10, 485–492.
  • Lawson, A. E. (1978). The development and validation of a classroom test of formal reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15, 11–24.
  • Leech, N.L & Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2007). An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation. School Psychology Quarterly, 22 (4), 557–584.
  • Losike-Sedimo, N. (2018). Mother’s influence on cognitive development: a cultural perspective. Advances In Social Science Research Journal, 5(1), 310–324.
  • Mach, E. (1905/1976). On thought experiment (T. J. McCormack & P. Foulkes, Trans.). In Knowledge and error (pp. 134–147). D. Reidel.
  • McGregor, S. L. T. (2014). Abductive reasoning in everyday life: Implications for home economics. Kappa Omicron Nu FORUM, 19(1).
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2019). PISA 2018 Türkiye ön raporu (Eğitim Analiz ve Değerlendirme Raporları Serisi, 10). https://pisa.meb.gov.tr/
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2018). Hayat bilgisi dersi öğretim programı (İlkokul 1, 2 ve 3. Sınıflar). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Ankara. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=326
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2018). Sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı (İlkokul ve ortaokul 4, 5, 6 ve 7. Sınıflar). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, Ankara. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=354
  • Morris, B. J., Croker, S., Masnick, A. M., & Zimmerman, C. (2012). The emergence of scientific reasoning. H. Kloos, B. J. Morris, & J. L. Amaral (Eds.), In current topics in children’s learning and cognition (pp. 61–82). InTech.
  • Musgrave, A. (2009). Popper and hypothetico-deductivism. D.M. Gabbay, P. Thagard, & J. Woods (Eds.), In Handbook of the History of Logic, 10, (pp.205–235). Elsevier BV.
  • National Information Center for Academic Recognition, Japan. (2023, Ocak). Japanese Education System. https://www.nicjp.niad.ac.jp/en/japanese-system/about.html
  • Piaget, J. (1928). Judgment and reasoning in the child. Edinburgh Press.
  • Piaget, J. (2016). Çocuğun gözüyle dünya. (İ. Yerguz, Çev.). Dost Kitabevi Yayınları. (Eserin orijinali 1947’de yayınlandı).
  • Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic.
  • Roadrangka, V., Yeany, R. H., & Padilla, M. J. (1982). Group test of logical thinking. University of Georgia.
  • Rothchild, I. (2006). Induction, deduction and the scientific method: An eclectic overview of the practice of science. Society for the Study of Reproduction, Inc.
  • Sarıtaş, D. (2012). Periyodik sistemin öğretim sürecinde oluşan rasyonel bilginin; üretimi, epistemolojisi ve metodolojisi (Yayın No. 328846). [Doktora tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi]. YÖK.
  • Senemoğlu, N. (2018). Gelişim öğrenme ve öğretim: kuramdan uygulamaya. Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Shayer, M. & Adey, P. (1981). Improving standards and the national curriculum. School Science Review, 17–23.
  • Sorensen, R.A. (1992). Thought experiments. Oxford University Press.
  • Sprenger, J. (2011). Hypothetico-deductive confirmation. Philosophy Compass, 6, 497–508.
  • Stammen, N., Malone, L. & Irving, E. (2018). Effects of modeling instruction professional development on biology teachers’ scientific reasoning skills. Education Science, 8(119).
  • Tobin, K.G. & Capie, W. (1981). The development and validation of a group test of logical thinking. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41, 413-423.
  • Tüysüz, M., & Tüzün, Ü.N. (2020). Astronomi-Kimya düşünce deneyleri temelli argümantasyonun özel yetenekli öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerileri üzerine etkisi. Erzincan University Journal of Education Faculty (EUJEF), 22(3), 818-836.
  • U.S. Department of Education. (2023, Ocak). The structure of education in the United States. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d01/fig1.asp
  • Wilhelm, J., Cole, M., Cohen, C. & Lindell, R. (2018). How middle level science teachers visualize and translate motion, scale, and geometric space of the Earth-Moon-Sun system with their students. Physical Review Physics Education Research 14 (1).
  • Wadsworth, B. (1975). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and effective development. Pearson College.
  • Yıldırım, C. (2014). Bilimsel düşünme yöntemi. İmge Kitabevi.
  • Yıldız, M.C ve Aydemir, C. (2016). Sosyal bilimlerde / sosyolojide sosyal kuram-sosyal pratik ilişkisi ve uygulamalı araştırma bulgularının yorumlanmasına ilişkin bazı problemler. Dicle University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 6(10), 1-15.
  • Yin, R.K. (2011). Applications of case study research. Sage Publications
  • Zimmerman, C. (2000). The development of scientific reasoning skills. Developmental Review, 20, 99–149.
  • Zimmerman, C. (2005). The development of scientific reasoning skills: what psychologists contribute to an understanding of elementary science learning. Final Draft of a Report to the National Research Council Committee on Science Learning Kindergarten through Eight Grade.

An Investigation into the Cognitive Developmental Stages and Scientific Reasoning Characteristics of Children Aged 7-11

Year 2025, Volume: 38 Issue: 3, 593 - 624
https://doi.org/10.19171/uefad.1595025

Abstract

Many countries have structured their educational systems based on Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. However, Piaget also emphasized that development is influenced by culture and that the age ranges for cognitive stages may vary across different cultural contexts. Therefore, it is essential to understand the developmental stages of children within a specific country before designing educational levels, developing instructional materials, or implementing teacher training programs. Otherwise, the quality and effectiveness of a country's educational system may be compromised. This study investigated the cognitive development stages and scientific reasoning characteristics of children aged 7 to 11. The sample consisted of 45 students, divided into five age groups. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and observation forms. The interview questions were based on two thought experiments from the social sciences. A total of 90 interviews were conducted, and 765 responses were analyzed using a qualitative data analysis program. The results indicated that all age groups exhibited the four types of scientific reasoning—abductive, inductive, deductive, and hypothetico-deductive—in varying frequencies and proportions. Additionally, the preoperational stage was found to persist until age 9, and the absence of clear indicators of the concrete operational stage suggests that it may begin around that age. Based on these results, recommendations are provided for the structuring of educational practices.

References

  • Acar, H. (2013). Fizik öğrencilerinin düşünme deneyleri ile düşünme süreçlerinin incelenmesi (Yayın No. 349941). [Yüksek lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi]. YÖK.
  • Ateş, M.E (2015). Bilimlerde düşünce deneyleri. Mediterranean Journal of Humanities, 1, 125–138.
  • Ateş, S. (Ed.). (2019). Bilimsel muhakeme (Akıl yürütme). Palme Yayınevi.
  • Ateşman, E. (1997). Türkçede okunabilirliğin ölçülmesi. Ankara University Dil Dergisi, 57, 71-74
  • Aydın, B. (2020). Gelişimin doğası. B. Yeşilyaprak (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi: Gelişim-öğrenme-öğretim içinde (ss. 29-55). Pegem Akademi.
  • Bağcıoğlu Ünver, G. (2016). Gelişimle ilgili temel kavramlar, gelişimin temel ilkeleri ve gelişimi etkileyen faktörler. A. Ulusoy (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi içinde (s. 30-47). Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Bjorklund, D.F. (2000). Children’s thinking: Developmental function and individual differences. Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
  • Bruner, J.S. (1960). The process of education. Vintage Books.
  • Chen, Z. & Klahr, D. (1999). All other things being equal: acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy. Child Development, 70 (5), 1098–1120.
  • Corcoran, J. (1989). Mantık ve etiğin ayrılmaz birlikteliği. (V. Duran-2018, Çev.). Disiplinlerarası Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(3), 1-7.
  • Cramer-Petersen, C. L., Christensen, B.T & Ahmed-Kristensen, S. (2019). Empirically analysing design reasoning patterns: Abductive-deductive reasoning patterns dominate design idea generation. Elsevier-Design Studies, 60(C), 39–70.
  • Çeçen Eroğul, R. A. (2021). Bilişsel gelişim ve dil gelişimi. M.E. Deniz (Ed.), Eğitim psikolojisi içinde (s. 83-136). Pegem Akademi.
  • Çüçen, A. K. (2021). Klasik mantık. Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Dasen, P.R. (2018). Cross-cultural research on spatial concept development. Cognitive Processing, 19 (1), 93–99.
  • Demir, Ö. (2017). Bilim felsefesi. Sentez Yayıncılık.
  • Drummond, C., & Fischhoff, B. (2017). Development and validation of the scientific reasoning scale. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 30, 26–28.
  • Durhan, G. (2020). Günlük yaşamda kullanılan bir düşünme biçimi olarak abdüktif akıl yürütme. Beytulhikme International Journal of Philosophy, 10(2), 663–675.
  • Dzainudin, M., Yamat, H. & Yunus, F. (2018). Emerging young children’s thinking through social and cognitive development in the project approach. Scientific Research Publishing, 9, 2137–2147.
  • Emiroğlu, İ. (2022). Klasik mantığa giriş. Elis Yayınları.
  • European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice. (2022). The structure of the European education systems 2022/2023: schematic diagrams. Eurydice Facts and Figures. Publications Office of the European Union. https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/media/2843/download
  • Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education. McGraw-Hill.
  • Gauvin, M. & Richard, R. (2016). Cognitive development. H. S. Friedman (Eds.), In Encyclopedia of Mental Health (pp. 317–323). Academic Press.
  • Gendler, T. S. (2000). Thought experiment: On the powers and limits of imaginary cases. Garland.
  • Georgiou, A. (2005). Thought experiments in physics problem solving on intuition and imagistic stimulation. [Master of Philosophy Thesis]. Cambridge University Faculty of Education.
  • Gliner, J.A., Morgan, G.A. & Leech, N.L. (2009). Research methods in applied settings-An integrated approach to design and analysis. Routledge.
  • Godfrey Smith, P. (2003). Theory and reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science. The University of Chicago Press.
  • Greenfield, M. P. (2018). Studying social change, culture and human development: A theoretical framework and methodological guidelines. Developmental Review, 5(3).
  • Hanson N.R. (1958). The logic of discovery. The Journal of Philosophy, 55(25), 1073–1089.
  • Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. Basic.
  • İnanç, B.Y., Bilgin, M. & Atıcı, M.K. (2015). Gelişim psikolojisi: çocuk ve ergen gelişimi. Pegem Akademi.
  • Kind, P. V., & Osborne, J. (2017). Style of scientific reasoning: A cultural rationale for science education. Science Education, 101 (1), 8-31.
  • Klahr, D., Fay, A., & Dunbar, K. (1993). Heuristics for scientific experimentation: A developmental study. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 111–146.
  • Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
  • Lakatos, I. (2014). Bilimsel araştırma programlarının metodolojisi. (D. Uygun, Çev.), Alfa Bilim. (Eserin orijinali 1978’te yayınlandı).
  • Lattery, M.J. (2001). Thought experiments in physics education: A simple and practical example. Science & Education, 10, 485–492.
  • Lawson, A. E. (1978). The development and validation of a classroom test of formal reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15, 11–24.
  • Leech, N.L & Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2007). An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation. School Psychology Quarterly, 22 (4), 557–584.
  • Losike-Sedimo, N. (2018). Mother’s influence on cognitive development: a cultural perspective. Advances In Social Science Research Journal, 5(1), 310–324.
  • Mach, E. (1905/1976). On thought experiment (T. J. McCormack & P. Foulkes, Trans.). In Knowledge and error (pp. 134–147). D. Reidel.
  • McGregor, S. L. T. (2014). Abductive reasoning in everyday life: Implications for home economics. Kappa Omicron Nu FORUM, 19(1).
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2019). PISA 2018 Türkiye ön raporu (Eğitim Analiz ve Değerlendirme Raporları Serisi, 10). https://pisa.meb.gov.tr/
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2018). Hayat bilgisi dersi öğretim programı (İlkokul 1, 2 ve 3. Sınıflar). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Ankara. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=326
  • Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (Ministry of Education MoNE). (2018). Sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı (İlkokul ve ortaokul 4, 5, 6 ve 7. Sınıflar). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı, Ankara. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=354
  • Morris, B. J., Croker, S., Masnick, A. M., & Zimmerman, C. (2012). The emergence of scientific reasoning. H. Kloos, B. J. Morris, & J. L. Amaral (Eds.), In current topics in children’s learning and cognition (pp. 61–82). InTech.
  • Musgrave, A. (2009). Popper and hypothetico-deductivism. D.M. Gabbay, P. Thagard, & J. Woods (Eds.), In Handbook of the History of Logic, 10, (pp.205–235). Elsevier BV.
  • National Information Center for Academic Recognition, Japan. (2023, Ocak). Japanese Education System. https://www.nicjp.niad.ac.jp/en/japanese-system/about.html
  • Piaget, J. (1928). Judgment and reasoning in the child. Edinburgh Press.
  • Piaget, J. (2016). Çocuğun gözüyle dünya. (İ. Yerguz, Çev.). Dost Kitabevi Yayınları. (Eserin orijinali 1947’de yayınlandı).
  • Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic.
  • Roadrangka, V., Yeany, R. H., & Padilla, M. J. (1982). Group test of logical thinking. University of Georgia.
  • Rothchild, I. (2006). Induction, deduction and the scientific method: An eclectic overview of the practice of science. Society for the Study of Reproduction, Inc.
  • Sarıtaş, D. (2012). Periyodik sistemin öğretim sürecinde oluşan rasyonel bilginin; üretimi, epistemolojisi ve metodolojisi (Yayın No. 328846). [Doktora tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi]. YÖK.
  • Senemoğlu, N. (2018). Gelişim öğrenme ve öğretim: kuramdan uygulamaya. Anı Yayıncılık.
  • Shayer, M. & Adey, P. (1981). Improving standards and the national curriculum. School Science Review, 17–23.
  • Sorensen, R.A. (1992). Thought experiments. Oxford University Press.
  • Sprenger, J. (2011). Hypothetico-deductive confirmation. Philosophy Compass, 6, 497–508.
  • Stammen, N., Malone, L. & Irving, E. (2018). Effects of modeling instruction professional development on biology teachers’ scientific reasoning skills. Education Science, 8(119).
  • Tobin, K.G. & Capie, W. (1981). The development and validation of a group test of logical thinking. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41, 413-423.
  • Tüysüz, M., & Tüzün, Ü.N. (2020). Astronomi-Kimya düşünce deneyleri temelli argümantasyonun özel yetenekli öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerileri üzerine etkisi. Erzincan University Journal of Education Faculty (EUJEF), 22(3), 818-836.
  • U.S. Department of Education. (2023, Ocak). The structure of education in the United States. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d01/fig1.asp
  • Wilhelm, J., Cole, M., Cohen, C. & Lindell, R. (2018). How middle level science teachers visualize and translate motion, scale, and geometric space of the Earth-Moon-Sun system with their students. Physical Review Physics Education Research 14 (1).
  • Wadsworth, B. (1975). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and effective development. Pearson College.
  • Yıldırım, C. (2014). Bilimsel düşünme yöntemi. İmge Kitabevi.
  • Yıldız, M.C ve Aydemir, C. (2016). Sosyal bilimlerde / sosyolojide sosyal kuram-sosyal pratik ilişkisi ve uygulamalı araştırma bulgularının yorumlanmasına ilişkin bazı problemler. Dicle University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 6(10), 1-15.
  • Yin, R.K. (2011). Applications of case study research. Sage Publications
  • Zimmerman, C. (2000). The development of scientific reasoning skills. Developmental Review, 20, 99–149.
  • Zimmerman, C. (2005). The development of scientific reasoning skills: what psychologists contribute to an understanding of elementary science learning. Final Draft of a Report to the National Research Council Committee on Science Learning Kindergarten through Eight Grade.
There are 67 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Learning Theories, Psychological Foundations of Education, Child Development Education
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Öznur Tunalı 0000-0003-3935-0596

Banu Aktürkoğlu 0000-0001-5307-882X

Early Pub Date October 16, 2025
Publication Date October 23, 2025
Submission Date December 2, 2024
Acceptance Date June 18, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 38 Issue: 3

Cite

APA Tunalı, Ö., & Aktürkoğlu, B. (2025). An Investigation into the Cognitive Developmental Stages and Scientific Reasoning Characteristics of Children Aged 7-11. Journal of Uludag University Faculty of Education, 38(3), 593-624. https://doi.org/10.19171/uefad.1595025


Journal of Uludag University Faculty of Education ©2025 by Bursa Uludag University is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0