The Battle of Tumu and the Oirat Siege of Beijing

Year 2025, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 1888 - 1963, 30.09.2025

Nureddin İzbasar

https://doi.org/10.24186/vakanuvis.1627459

Abstract

During the establishment and rise of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), its military interventions in Mongolia dealt a significant blow to the Mongol khans of Kublai Khan’s lineage and the people under their rule. Over the course of nearly half a century of warfare, hundreds of thousands of Mongols were captured, while many more were forced to seek refuge under Ming protection. These developments altered the demographic balance and political structure of Mongolia, leading to the rise of the Oirats, who were the eternal rivals of Kublai’s descendants and, at the same time, allies of the Ming Dynasty. Strengthening by their commercial relations with the Ming, the Oirats rapidly expanded their influence from Qumul (Hami) in the west to the Jurchens in the east. However, the expansionist policies implemented during the reign of Emperor Zhu Di depleted the Ming Dynasty’s resources. Following his death, subsequent emperors abandoned military expansion and withdrew Ming forces from both Vietnam (Annam) in the south and the Mongolian steppes in the north. By the mid-15th century, the Oirats had become a formidable power. Alarmed by this growing influence, the Ming Dynasty began to exhibit reluctance in its trade relations with the Oirats. In response, Oirat leader Esen launched a major campaign against the Ming in 1449, decisively defeating them at the Battle of Tumu, where he captured Emperor Zhu Qizhen. The following year, he besieged Beijing, plunging the Ming Dynasty into a severe crisis.

Keywords

Ming Dynasty , Oirats , Tumu Incident , Siege of Beijing , Esen Taishi , Zhu Qizhen

Tumu Muharebesi ve Oyratların Pekin Kuşatması

Abstract

Ming Hanedanlığı’nın (1368-1644) kuruluş ve yükseliş döneminde, Moğolistan’a yönelik askerî müdahaleleri, Kubilay soyundan gelen Moğol hanlarına ve onların yönetimindeki halka büyük bir darbe vurdu. Yaklaşık yarım asır süren savaşlar sırasında yüz binlerce Moğol esir alındı ve daha fazlası Ming himayesine girmek zorunda kaldı. Bu gelişmeler, Moğolistan’daki demografik dengeyi ve siyasi yapıyı değiştirerek, Kubilay hanedanının ezeli rakipleri ve aynı zamanda Ming Hanedanlığı’nın müttefikleri olan Oyratların güçlenmesine ve Moğolistan’daki otoriteyi ele geçirmesine yol açtı. Ticari ilişkilerini Ming Hanedanlığı ile güçlendiren Oyratlar, hızla kuvvetlenerek batıda Kumul’dan (Hami), doğuda ise Cürçenlere kadar genişleyen bir etki alanı oluşturdu. Ancak, Zhu Di döneminde uygulanan genişleme politikaları nedeniyle Ming Hanedanlığı büyük ölçüde kaynaklarını tüketmişti. Onun ölümünden sonra gelen imparatorlar, askerî yayılmacılığı terk ederek güneyde Vietnam’daki (Annam) ve kuzeyde Moğolistan’daki Ming askerî varlıklarını geri çekti. 15. yüzyılın ortalarına gelindiğinde Oyratlar büyük bir güç hâline gelirken, Ming Hanedanlığı bu yükselişten rahatsız oldu ve Oyratlarla olan ticari ilişkilerde isteksiz davranmaya başladı. Bu gelişmelere tepki olarak Oyrat lideri Esen, 1449’da Ming’e karşı büyük bir sefer düzenleyerek Tumu Muharebesi’nde İmparator Zhu Qizhen’i esir aldı ve ertesi yıl Pekin’i kuşatarak Ming Hanedanlığı’nı büyük bir krize soktu.

Keywords

Ming Hanedanlığı , Oyratlar , Tumu Krizi , Pekin Kuşatması , Esen Taişi , Zhu Qizhen

References

• Atwood, Christopher P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2004.
• Bai 白, Cuiqin 翠琴, ed. Ming Shi Lu-Wala Ziliao Zhaibian 《明实录》瓦剌资料摘编. Urumçi: Xinjiang Renmin Chuban She, 1982.
• Bai白, Cuiqin翠琴. “Wala Jing Yu Bianqian Kaoshu 瓦剌境遇变迁考述”. Studia Historica Mongolica 蒙古史研究, 35-52. Hohhot: Nei Menggu Renmin Chuban She, 1985.
• Bao, Dalizhabu. “Bei Yuan Woerduo Youmu Di Kao 北元汗斡耳朵游牧地考”. Ming Qing Menggu Shi Gaolun 明清蒙古史论稿, 54-81. Beijing: Minzu Chuban She, 2003.
• Bate巴特, ve Jianyi坚毅 Hong洪. Menggu Zu Gudai Zhanli Shi 蒙古族古代战例史. Beijing: Jincheng Chuban She, 2002.
• Börçigin, Ulan乌兰(Wulan). Erdeni-yin Topçi 蒙古源流. Hohhot: Neimengu Dxue Chuban She, 2000.
• Bstagjin, Blobsang. Erten-ü Kad-un Ündüsülegsen Törü Yosun-u Jokiyal-i Tobçilan Kuriyagsan Altan Tobçi 大蒙古国根本黄金史. Gerel格日乐. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2014.
• Buyandelger. “15 Shiji Zhongye Qian De Bei Yuan Kehan Shixi Ji Zhengju 15 世纪 中叶前 的北元可汗世系及政局”. Menggu Shi Yanjiu, 6 (2000): 131-155.
• Bu卜, Zhaojing照晶. “Shi Lun Ming Chu Dui Jun Zhong Menggu Ren De Fu Yong Zhengce 试论明初对军中蒙古人的抚用政策”. Ming Shi Yanjiu, 10/1 (2007): 272-282.
• Cao曹, Yongnian永年. General History of Mongolian Nationality (3) 蒙古民族通史 (第三卷). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2002.
• Chen 陈, Wutong梧桐. “Yongle Zhi Xuande De Zhengce Shiwu Yu ‘Tumu Zhi Bian’ 永乐至宣德的政策失误与"土木之变"”. Gudai Minzu Guanxi Lungao 古代民族关系论稿, s. 278-288. Beijing: Zhongyang Minzu Daxue Chuban She, 2006.
• Chen陈, Wutong梧桐. “Yongle Zhi Xuande De Zhengce Shiwu Yu ‘Tumu Zhi Bian’ 永乐至宣德的政策失误与"土木之变"”. Lu Hen Ji 履痕集, 233-240. Zhengzhou: Da Xiang Chuban She, 2007.
• Chen陈, Xuelin学霖. “Menggu ‘Yongle Huangdi Jianzao Beijing Cheng’ Gushi Shentan 蒙古 ‘永乐皇帝建造北京城’ 故事探源”. Ming Chu De Renwu, Shi Shi Yu Chuanshuo 明初的人物, 史事与传说, Beijing: Peking University Press, 2010.
• Chen陈, Zhigang志刚. “Mingdai Hami Wei Yu Yisilan Jiao Dong Kuo明代哈密卫与伊斯兰教东扩”. “The Making of Ming-Qing Empire: Historical Anthropology on the Institutions of Garrisons and Military Households” Workshop “明清国家的形成：卫所军户制度的历史人类学研究” 田野工作坊. Lanzhou: Department of History, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2016.
• Chimeddorj, Ganjidmaa. “Erdeni- Yin Tobçi ” ( Hanların Menşei Hakkında Hazinelerinin Tarihi )”. İstanbul Üniversitesi, 2017.
• Dai戴, Junliang 均良, ed. Zhongguo Gujin Diming Da Cidian中国古今地名大词典. Shanghai: Shanghai Ci Shu Chuban she, 2005.
• Duğlat, Mirza Haydar. Tarih-i Reşidi. çev. Osman Karatay. Selenge Yayınları. İstanbul, 2006.
• Elverskog, Johan. “The Tumu Incident and The chinggisid Legacy in Inner asIa”. The Silk Road 15 (2017): 142-52.
• Feng封, Jinying进英. “A Study of Zhu Yuan-Zhang’s Political Psychology in Estabilishing the Jin Yi Guard 朱元璋建立锦衣卫的政治心理研究”. Shandong University, 2020.
• Frederick, W. Mote. “The T’u-mu Incident of 1449”. Chinese Ways in Warfare, ed. John K. Fairbank ve Jr Frank A. Kierman. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974.
• Gerel格日乐, ed. Şir-a Teüke 黄史. Hohhot: Nei Menggu Jiaoyu Chuban She, 2007.
• Gülensoy, Tuncer, ed. Altan Topçi (Moğol Tarihi). Ankara: Kültür Ajansı, 2008.
• Gu谷, Yingtai 应泰. Ming Shi Jishi Benmo 明史纪事本末. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1977.
• Han韩, Shanzhi善徵. Menggu Jishi Benmo 蒙古紀事本末. ed. Baowen宝文 Li李. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chuban She, 2012.
• Hasumi, Moriyoshi. “Tumu Zhi Bian Shiqi Li Chao Souji Ming Chao Qingbao De Huodong 土木之变时期李朝搜集明朝情报的活动”. Shixue Jikan, 1 (1999): 14, 17-20.
• He何, Xiaorong孝荣. “The Ming Eunuch Wang Zhen and Emperor Yingzong 太监王振与明英宗”. Nankai Xuebao, 2 (2013): 65-73.
• Hitai, Ali Ekber. HITAYNÂME. ed. Celal Aslan. Ankara: İksad Publishing House, 2021.
• Hua华, Zhe喆. Diguo De Beiying-1368 Nian Hou De Menggu 帝国的背影- 1368年后的蒙古. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Daxue Chuban She, 2014.
• İzbasar, Nureddin. “14. Yüzyılın Son Çeyreğinde Moğolistan’daki Siyasi Durum ve Bu Durumun Timurlu-Ming İlişkilerine Etkisi”. Medeniyet Kültürel Araştırmalar Belleteni, 3/5 (2024): 172-198.
• Jiao焦, Hong竑. Guo Chao Xianzheng Lu国朝献征录. Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian, 1986.
• Jin金, Youzi幼孜. “Bei Zheng Lu, Hou Bei Zheng Lu北征录, 后北征录”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 1明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第一辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 29-49. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Li 李, Guangbi光璧, ve Jiadu家度 Lai 赖. Mingchao Dui Wala De Zhanzheng明朝对瓦剌的战争. Shanghai: Zhonghua Renmin Chuban She, 1954.
• Li 李, Yunping 云平, ed. Zhongguo Zhanzheng Shi Ditu Ji 中国战争史地图集. Beijing: Xingqiu Ditu Chuban She, 2007.
• Liang梁, Miaotai淼泰. “Mingdai Jiubıan De Junshu 明代‘九边’的军数”. Zhongguo Shi Yanjiu, 1 (1997): 147-157.
• Lin, Yih-Min. “Ali Ekber’in Hıtaynema Adlı Eserinin Çin Kaynakları İle Mukayese ve Tenkidi”. 1967.
• Liu刘, Dingzhi定之. “Fou Tai Lu 否泰录”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第一辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 68-75. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Liu刘, Jingchun景纯. Research on History and Geography of The Nine Border Defence Areas in Ming Dynasty 明代九边史地研究. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2014.
• Li李, Huguang湖光. Da Ming Diguo Zhanzheng Shi 大明帝国战争史. Nanjing: Fenghuang Chuban She, 2010.
• ———. Ming Meng Zhanzheng: Ming Chao Jundui Zhengfa Shi Yu Menggu Qi Bing Shengshuai Shi 明蒙战争:明朝军队征伐史与蒙古骑兵盛衰史. Changchun: Jilin Wenshi Chuban She, 2018.
• Li李, Jinxin进新. Xinjiang Yisilan Hanchao Shilue 新疆伊斯兰汗朝史略. Beijing: Zongjiao Wenhua Chuban She, 1999.
• Li李, Shi实. “Bei Shi Lu 北使录”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian1蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第一辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 76-85. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Li李, Xianqiang贤强. “Mingdai Beibu Bianjiang Bing Bian De Fasheng yu Chuzhi 明代北部边疆兵变的发生与处置”. Journal of Hubei University (Philpsophy and Social Science), 48/4 (2021): 88-96.
• Li李, Xian贤. Tianshun Ri Lu 天顺日录. Zhonghua Dianzang Wang 中华典藏网, 1617. https://www.zhonghuadiancang.com/lishizhuanji/tianshunrilu/45959.html.
• Li李, Xinfeng新峰. “Tumu Zhi Bian Zhiyi土木之战志疑”. Ming Shi Yanjiu, 6 (1999): 109-115.
• Luo雒, Xue雪. “Ming Yingzong Younian Jiaoyu Guankui 明英宗幼年教育管窥”. Kejiao Daokan, 6 (2016).
• Lu陆, Rong容. Shu Yuan Zaji 菽园杂记. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1985.
• Ma马, Dawei大伟, ve Sanying三英 Mu慕. “Mingdai ‘Tumu Zhi Bian’ Dui Yu Chu Zhi Zhanzheng Beijing Xia Zhengzhi Xing Renzhi Shijian De Qishi 明代土木之变对于处置战争背景下政治型人质事件的启示”. Journal of Chinese People’s Public Security Univercity (Social Sceinece), 125/1 (2007): 145-149.
• Ma马, Dazheng大正, ve Zongda 崇德 Cheng成. Weilate Menggu Shigang 卫拉特蒙古史纲. Renmin Chuban She. Beijing, 2012.
• Ma马, Jianchun建春. “Mingdai Xiyu Huihui Ren Makeshun Shiyi Kao 明代西域回回人马克顺事迹考”. Journal of Hui Muslim Minority Studies, 70/2 (2008): 58-61.
• ———. “‘Mutiny in Tumu’ and Huihui People 土木之变与回回人”. Xibei Minzu Xue Yanjiu, 17/2 (1998): 153-165.
• Meng孟, Xiu修. “Tumu Zhi Bian Xin Lun 土木之变新论”. Journal of Heilongjiang Collage of Education, 28/7 (2009): 88-89.
• ———. “Tumu Zhi Bian yu Geng Xu Zhi Bian Bijiao Yanjiu- Chaogong Tizhi Kuangjia Xia De Ming Meng Guanxi Xin Tan 土木之变与庚戌之变比较研究-朝贡体制框架下的明蒙关系新探”. Heilongjiang University, 2010.
• Minobu, Honda. “On the Genealogy of the Early Northern Yuan”. Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, 30/ 3-4 (1958): 230-240.
• Mote, Frederick W., ve Denis Twitchett. “Volume 7 The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part I”. The Cambirdge History of China. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
• Nankuaimodege. “On Wala Mongolians and Society of Western Region in Ancient Time 论瓦剌蒙古与西域社会”. J. Northwest University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Sceince), 2 (2005): 125-132.
• Nan南, Bingwen炳文, ve Gang纲 Tang汤. Ming Shi 明史(上). Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chuban She, 2003.
• Pelliot, Paul. Notes Critiques D’histoire Kalmouke- Çince: 卡尔梅克史评注. çev. Geng Sheng 耿昇. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1994.
• Perdue, Peter C. China Marches West : the Qing conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005.
• Porter, Jonathan. Imperial China, 1350-1900. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016.
• Pu蒲, Zhangxia章霞. “Tumu Zhi Bian Yuanyin Kaoshu ‘土木之变’原因考述”. Zhongguo Bianjiang Minzu Shi Yanjiu, 3 (2010): 47-56.
• Qian钱, Mu穆, ed. “Tumu Zhi Bian Zhanyi 土木之慶戰役”. Zhongguo Lidai Zhanzheng Shi 14.cilt 中国历代战争史·第14册, 4917-64. Taipei: Junshi Yiwen Chuban She, 1979.
• Qiu丘, Guangbing光明. The History of Ancient Chinese Measures and Weights 中国古代计量史. Hefei: Anhui Kexue Jishu Chuban She, 2012.
• Qiu丘, Long隆, Guangming光明 Qiu丘, Maosen茂森 Gu顾, Dongrui东瑞 Liu刘, ve Hong鸿 Wu巫, ed. Zhongguo Gudai Du Liang Heng Tu Ji 中国古代度量衡图集. Beijing: Wenwu Chuban She, 1984.
• Qi奇, Wenying文瑛. Mingdai Weisuo Guifuren Yanjiu明代卫所归附人研究-以辽东和京畿地区卫所达官为中心. Beijing: China Minzu University Press, 2011.
• Qu瞿, Jiusi九思. “Wanli Wu Gong Lu 万历武功录”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 4 明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第4辑, ed. Bo Yinhu薄音湖. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2007.
• Robinson, David M., Bandits, eunuchs, and the son of heaven : rebellion and the economy of violence in mid-Ming China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
• Robinson, David M., “The Ming Court and the Legary of the Yuan Mongols”. Culture, Courtiers, and Competition:The Ming Court (1368-1644), David M. R., 369. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2008.
• Sechen, Sagang. The precious summary : a history of the Mongols from Chinggis Khan to the Qing dynasty. ed. Johan Elverskog. New York: Columbia University Press, 2023.
• Shang 商, Chuan传. “Jing Nan Zhi Yin Zhiqian De Yanwang Zhu Di ‘靖难之役’前的燕王朱棣”. Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Yuan Yanjiu Sheng Xuebao, (1979); 74-80.
• Shen沈, Defu德符. Wanli Ye Huo Bian 万历野获编. ed. Yang Wanli 杨万里. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chuban She, 2012.
• Sun孙, Jizong继宗. Ming Yingzong Shi Lu 明英宗实录. Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiu Yuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiu Suo 中央研究院歷史語言研究所, 1962.
• Taşağıl, Ahmet. “Hıtâynâme”. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 17, 404-405. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, 1998.
• Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry. Perpetual Happiness The Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001.
• Wada, Sei. Mingdai Menggu Shi Lunji 明代蒙古史论集. ed. Fan Shixian番世宪. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshu Guan, 1984.
• Wang王, Chunyu春瑜, ve Wanyan婉言 Du杜. Mingchao Huanguan 明朝宦官. Beijing: Zijincheng Chuban She, 1989.
• Wang王, Shengzu绳祖, ed. Guoji Guanxi Shi 国际关系史第四卷. Beijing: Shijie Zhishi Chuban She, 1995.
• Wang王, Shizhen世贞. “Geng Xu Shimo Zhi 庚戌始末志, Bei Lu Shimo Zhi 北虏始末志”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 2明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第二辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 音湖薄 ve Wang Xiong 雄王, s. 16-20 ve 21-24. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Wang王, Sihuai思怀. “The Death of Yu Qian and Reallocation of Central Power in The Period of Jingtai of Ming Dynasty 于谦之死与景泰年间中央权力的再分配”. The Northern Forum, 197/3 (2006): 86-89.
• Wang王, Xiong雄. “Guanyu A Tai Han关于阿台汗”. Menggu Shi Yanjiu 5 蒙古史研究第五辑, s. 159-168. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 1997.
• Wan万, Ming明. “The Construction of Beijing in Ming Dynasty from a Global Perspective 全球视野下的明代北京鼎建”. Ming Qing Shi Yanjiu, 4 (2021): 29-40.
• Wei韦, Qingyuan庆远. Mingdai Jin Yi Wei He Dong Xi Chang 明代的锦衣卫和东西厂. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1979.
• Wei魏, Huan焕. “Huang Ming Jiu Bian Kao 皇明九边考”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 6 明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编 第六辑, ed. Bo Yinhu薄音湖 ve Yu Moying 于默颖, s. 193-324. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2009.
• Wei魏, Songshan 嵩山, ed. Zhongguo Lishi Diming Dacidian 中国历史地名大辞典. Guangzhou: Guangdong Jiaoyu Chuban She, 1995.
• Wen文, Sheng升. “Fu An Dong Yi Ji 抚安东夷记”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编. 第一辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 124-28. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Wu吴, Han晗, ed. Chaoxian Li Chao Shi Lu Zhong De Zhongguo Shiliao 朝鲜李朝实录中的中国史料. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1980.
• Wu吴, Yunyan云延. “Tumu Zhi Bian Qianhou De Menggu Jiang Ren 土木之变前后的蒙古降人”. Hebei Xuekan, 3 (1989): 106-111.
• Xia夏, Xie燮. Ming Tong Jian-Baiwen Duizhao Quanyi 文白对照全译《明通鉴》. Beijing: Gaige Chuban She, 1994.
• Xie谢, Zhongzhi忠志. Mingdai Bing Bei Dao Zhidu: Yi Wen Yu Wu De Guoce Yu Wen Renzhi Bing De Shi Lian 明代兵備道制度：以文馭武的國策與文人知兵的實練. Taipei: Mingshi Yanjiu Xiaozu, 2002.
• Xu徐, Xueju学聚. Guochao Dianhui 国朝典汇. Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chuban She, 1993.
• Yang杨, Ming铭. “Zhengtong Lin Rong Lu正统临戎录”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian1明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第一辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 93-108. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Yang杨, Rong 荣. “Bei Zheng Ji 北征记”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 1明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第一辑, s. 58-66. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Yang杨, Shaoyou绍猷. Anda Han Pingzhuan 俺答汗评传. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chuban She, 1992.
• Ye叶, Sheng盛. Shui Dong Riji 水东日记. ed. Wei Zhongping 魏中平. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1980.
• Ye叶, Xianggao向高. “Si Yi Kao 四夷考”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 2 明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编（第二辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 482-526. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Yuan袁, Bin彬. “Bei Zheng Shiji 北征事迹”. Mingdai Menggu Hanji Shiliao Huibian 1明代蒙古汉籍史料汇编.第一辑, ed. Bo Yinhu 薄音湖 ve Wang Xiong 王雄, s. 86-92. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press, 2006.
• Yu于, Moying默颖. “Mingdai Menggu De Jinong Zhidu 明代蒙古的济农制度”. Inner Mongolia Social Sceince, 38/6 (2017): 70-76.
• Yu于, Moying默颖, ve Bo薄, Yinhu音湖. “Ming Yongle Shiqi Wala San Wang Ji Ning Wang De Ce Feng明永乐时期瓦剌三王及和宁王的册封”. Inner Mongolia Social Sceince, 22/3 (2001): 42-46.
• Zhang 张, Tingyu廷玉. Ming Shi 明史. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju Chuban She, 1974.
• Zhang张, Fu辅, ed. Ming Taizong Shi Lu 明太宗实录. Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiu Yuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiu Suo 中央研究院歷史語言研究所, 1962.
• ———, ed. Ming Xuanzong Shi Lu 明宣宗实录. Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiu Yuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiu Suo 中央研究院歷史語言研究所, 1962.
• Zhang张, Haiying海英. “Ming Xiao Ling Wenhua De Lish Diyun-Cong Ming Chengzu Zhu Di Shengmu Zhi Mi Tan Qi明孝陵文化的历史底蕴--从明成祖朱棣生母之谜谈起”. Shijie Yichan Luntan 2- Shijie Yichan Yu Chengshi Fazhan Zh Hudong世界遗产与城市发展之互动. Nanjing: Kexue Chuban She, 2006.
• Zhao赵, Nanzhong中男, ed. Mingdai Gongting Zhengzhi Shi 明代宫廷政治史. Beijing: Gugong Chuban She, 2015.
• Zhao赵, Yi毅, ve Dongyang冬阳 Luo罗. Ming Yingzong Zhuan 明英宗传. Beijing: Renmin Chuban She, 2019.
• Zhao赵, Yuntian云田. A Complete History of China North Borderland 北疆通史. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chuban She, 2003.
• Zhao赵, Yuntian云田. Ming Qing Gong Ting Mi Shi 明清宫廷秘史. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Renmin Chuban She, 1985.
• Zha查, Jizuo继佐. Zui Wei Lu 罪惟录. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Guji Chuban She, 1985.
• Zhou周, Rongbing融冰. “The Beginning and End of Qosud Khan’s Reign of Tibet 和硕特汗王统治西藏始末”. Journal of Tibet Natiaonalty Institute (Philosophy an Social Seceinece ), 26/4 (2005): 27-30.
• Zhou周, Song松. “On Affiliated Alutai Tribe in Ming Dynasty 明代内附阿鲁台族人辨析”. J. Northwest University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Sceince), 5 (2011): 74-82.
• Zhou周, Song松. “The Change of Dong Sheng Wei in the Confrontation Between Ming and North Yuan in Hongwu Period 明与北元对峙格局中的洪武朝之东胜卫变迁”. Journal of Historical Science, 5 (2007): 35-41.
• Zhu朱, Feng 风. Altan Topçi 汉译蒙古黄金史纲. Neimenggu Renmin Chuban She. Zhufeng. Hohhot, 1985.