The Effect of Natural Disasters on the Perception of Climate Change: The Situation in Türkiye with Social Media Data

Year 2024, Volume: 15 Issue: 42, 570 - 592, 29.05.2024

Olcay Besnili Memiş

https://doi.org/10.21076/vizyoner.1311327

Abstract

Climate change is an important social problem that has a high humanitarian impact. However, its existence and consequences remain controversial. It causes perceptions about climate change to be uncertain, and its effects and consequences are not yet understood. This uncertainty hinders both the success of policies and the creation of social pressure for more policy demand. However, individuals who experience climate change increase their willingness to take countermeasures and demand more social policies. Therefore, how societies perceive climate change is recognized as an important issue for the struggle and has become an issue that needs to be researched. In this context, the study aims to reveal how wildfires that occurred in Türkiye in 2021. 795 Twitter posts are analysed, and perceptions of wildfires and climate change are analysed. As a result of the study, statements confirming and denying the relationship between wildfires and climate change are identified. However, instead of pointing to climate change for combating wildfires, it is observed that there are policy demands based on the improvement in physical conditions and traditional reasons. As a result, it is possible to say that social perception has not yet been fully formed and there is a need for trainings that increase awareness.

Keywords

Climate Change, Wildfires, Natural Disasters, Adaptation and Mitigation Policies

Doğal Afetlerin İklim Değişikliği Algısına Etkisi: Sosyal Medya Verileri ile Türkiye’de Durum

Abstract

İklim değişikliği, insani etkileri fazla olan önemli bir sosyal sorundur. Buna rağmen, varlığı ve sonuçları hala tartışmalı kabul edilmektedir. Bu durum, iklim değişikliği ile ilgili algıların da belirsiz olmasına, etkilerinin ve sonuçlarının anlaşılmamasına neden olmaktadır. Dolayısıyla, iklim değişikliği ile afetler arasındaki bağlantı konusunda bir belirsizlik söz konusudur. Bu belirsizlik hem uygulanacak politikaların başarısını hem de daha fazla politika talebi için toplumsal baskı oluşmasını engellemektedir. Ancak, iklim değişikliğini deneyimleyen bireylerin, karşı tedbir alma isteğinin arttığı ve daha fazla sosyal politika talep ettikleri görülmektedir. Bu nedenle, toplumların iklim değişikliğini nasıl algıladığı, mücadele için önemli bir konu olarak kabul edilmekte ve araştırılması gereken bir konu haline gelmektedir. Bu bağlamda araştırmada, 2021 yılında Türkiye'de meydana gelen orman yangınlarının toplumsal olarak nasıl algılandığını ortaya koymayı amaçlanmaktadır. Twitter üzerindeki 795 paylaşım incelenmiş ve orman yangınları ile iklim değişikliği arasındaki algılar analiz edilmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucunda, orman yangınlarının iklim değişikliği ile ilişkisini doğrulayan ve reddeden ifadeler tespit edilmiştir. Ancak, mücadele için iklim değişikliğini işaret etmek yerine, daha çok fiziksel koşulların iyileştirilmesi ve geleneksel nedenler üzerinden politika taleplerinin olduğu görülmüştür. Sonuç olarak, toplumsal algının henüz tam olarak oluşmadığını ve farkındalığı artıran eğitimlere ihtiyaç duyulduğunu söylemek mümkündür.

Keywords

İklim Değişikliği, Orman Yangınları, Doğal Afetler, Uyum ve Azaltım Politikaları

References

• Alder, J. R. ve Hostetler, S. (2014). The USGS National Climate Change Viewer: A model visualization web application. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts, U23A-06. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7W9575T
• Anderson, J. ve Bausch, C. (2006). Climate change and natural disasters: Scientific evidence of a possible relation between recent natural disasters and climate change, Institute for European Environment Policy, https://ieep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/IEEP_Ecologic_climate_change_natural_disasters.pdf adresinden 15 Nisan 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• Balch, J. K., Abatzoglou, J. T., Joseph, M.B., Koontz, M. J., Mahood, A. L. McGlinchy, J., Cattau, M. E. ve Williams, A. P. (2022). Warming weakens the night-time barrier to global fire. Nature, 602, 442-448. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04325-1
• Barker, T., Scrieciu, S. ve Taylor, D. (2008). Climate Change, Social Justice and Development. Development, 51(3), 317-324. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/12/122001
• Bastos, M. T. ve Zago, G. (2013). Tweeting news articles: readership and news sections in Europe and the Americas. SAGE Open, 3(3), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013502496
• Baxter, P. ve Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13, 544-559. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2008.1573
• Becken, S., Stantic, B., Chen, J. ve Connolly, R. M. (2022). Twitter conversations reveal issue salience of aviation in the broader context of climate change, Journal of Air Transport Management, 98, 102157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2021.102157
• Benali, A., Mota, B., Carvalhais, N., Oom, D., Miller, L. M., Campagnolo, M. L. ve Pereira, J.M.C. (2017). Bimodal fire regimes unveil a global-scale anthropogenic fingerprint, Global Ecology and Biogeography, 26(7), 799-811. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12586
• Bergquist, P. ve Warshaw, C. (2019). Does global warming increase public concern about climate change?, The Journal of Politics, 81(2), 686-691. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/701766
• Boag, A. E., Hartter, J., Hamilton, L.C., Christoffersen, N. D., Stevens, F. R., Palace, M. W. ve Ducey, M. J. (2018). Climate change beliefs and forest management in eastern Oregon: implications for individual adaptive capacity, Ecology and Society, 23(4), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-10355-230401
• Borick, C. P., ve Rabe, B. G. (2014). Weather or Not? Examining the Impact of Meteorological Conditions on Public Opinion regarding Global Warming. Weather, Climate, and Society, 6(3), 413-424. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00042.1
• Brennan, R. L., ve Prediger, D. J. (1981). Coefficient Kappa: Some uses, misuses, and alternatives. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41(3), 687-699. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131644810410030
• Brody, S. D., Zahran, S., Vedlitz, A. ve Grover H. (2008). Examining the relationship between physical vulnerability and public perceptions of global climate change in the United States. Environment and Behavior, 40(1), 72-95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916506298800
• Brooks, J., Oxley, D., Vedlitz, A., Zahran, S. ve Lindsey, C. (2014). Abnormal daily temperature and concern about climate change across the united states. Review of Policy Research, 31, 199-217. https://doi.org/10.1111/ropr.12067
• Broomell, S. B., Winkles, J. F. ve Kane, P. B. (2017). The perception of daily temperatures as evidence of global warming. Weather, Climate, and Society, 9, 563-574. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-17-0003.1
• Brulle, R., Carmichael, J. ve Jenkins, J. (2012). Shifting public opinion on climate change: An empirical assessment of factors influencing concern over climate change in the US, 2002-2010. Climatic Change, 114, 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0403-y
• CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service). (2021). Wildfires wreaked havoc in 2021, CAMS tracked their impact. https://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/wildfires-wreaked-havoc-2021-cams-tracked-their-impact adresinden 15 Nisan 2023 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• Carlton, J. S., Mase, A. S., Knutson, C. L., Lemos, M. C., Haigh, T., Todey, D. P. ve Prokopy, L. S. (2016). The effects of extreme drought on climate change beliefs, risk perceptions, and adaptation attitudes, Climatic Change, 135, 211-226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1561-5
• Cody, E. M., Reagan, A. J., Mitchell, L., Dodds, P. S. ve Danforth, C. M. (2015). Climate change sentiment on Twitter: An unsolicited public opinion poll. Plos One. 10(8), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136092
• Creswell, J. W. (2016). Nitel araştırma yöntemleri: Beş yaklaşıma göre nitel araştırma ve araştırma deseni. (M. Bütün ve S. B. Demir, Çev. Ed.). Siyasal Kitabevi.
• Creswell, J. W. (2017). Nitel araştırmacılar için 30 temel beceri. (H. Özcan Çev. Ed.). Anı Yayıncılık.
• Cutler, M. J. (2016). Class, ideology, and severe weather: How the interaction of social and physical factors shape climate change threat perceptions among coastal US residents. Environmental Sociology, 2(3), 275-285. https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2016.1210842
• Dai, J., Kesternich, M., Löschel, A. ve Ziegler, A. (2015). Extreme weather experiences and climate change beliefs in China: An econometric analysis. Ecological Economics, 116, 310-321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.05.001
• Denzin, N. K., ve Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. N. K. Denzin ve Y. S. Lincoln (Ed.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research içinde (s. 1-32). Sage Publications Ltd.
• Deryugina, T. (2013). How do people update? The effects of local weather fluctuations on beliefs about global warming. Climatic Change, 118, 397-416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0615-1
• Downe-Wambolt, B. (1992). Content analysis: method, applications and issues. Health Care for Women International, 13(3), 313-321. https://doi: 10.1080/07399339209516006
• Effrosynidis, D., Karasakalidis, A. I., Sylaios, G. ve Arampatzis, A. (2022). The climate change Twitter dataset. Expert Systems with Applications, 204, 117541, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117541
• Egan, P. J. ve Mullin, M. (2012). Turning personal experience into political attitudes: The Effect of local weather on Americans’ perceptions about global warming. The Journal of Politics, 74(3), 796-809. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381612000448
• El Barachi, M., AlKhatib, M., Mathew, S. ve Oroumchian, F. (2021). A novel sentiment analysis framework for monitoring the evolving public opinion in real-time: Case study on climate change. Journal of Cleaner Production, 127820, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127820
• Erev, I. ve Barron, G. (2005). On Adaptation, Maximization, and reinforcement learning among cognitive strategies. Psychological Review, 112(4), 912-931. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.112.4.912
• ESOTC (European State of the Climate). (2021). Mediterranean summer extremes. https://climate.copernicus.eu/esotc/2021/mediterranean-summer-extremes adresinden 25 Mayıs.2023 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The three worlds of welfare capitalism, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
• Finsinger, W., Vale, Q., Ribolini, A. ve Tinner W. (2021). Early to late Holocene vegetation and fire dynamics at the treeline in the Maritime Alps. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 30, 507-524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-020-00795-x
• Gerring, J. (2007). Case study research: Principles and practices, Cambridge University Press.
• Goldberg, M. H., van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A. ve Maibach, E. (2020). Perceived social consensus can reduce ideological biases on climate change. Environment and Behavior, 52(5), 495-517. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391651985330
• Gough, I. (2013). Climate change, social policy, and global governance. Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy, 29(3), 185-203. https://doi.org/10.1080/21699763.2013.852128
• Hamilton, L. C., Hartter, J., Keim, B. D., Boag, A. E., Palace, M. W., Stevens, F. R. ve Ducey, M. J. (2016). Wildfire, climate, and perceptions in Northeast Oregon. Regional Environmental Change, 16, 1819-1832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0914-y
• Haunschild, R., Leydesdorff, L., Bornmann, L., Hellsten, I. ve Marx, W. (2019). Does the public discuss other topics on climate change than researchers? A comparison of explorative networks based on author keywords and hashtags. Journal of Informetrics, 13(2), 695-707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2019.03.008
• Hertwig, R., Barron, G., Weber, E. U. ve Erev, I. (2004). Decisions from experience and the effect of rare events. Psychological Science, 15, 534-539. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.0071
• Holmberg, K. ve Hellsten, I. (2015). Gender differences in the climate change communication on Twitter. Internet Research, 25(5), 811-828. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-07-2014-0179
• Howe, P., Markowitz, E., Lee, T., KO, C. Y. ve Leiserowitz, A. (2013). Global perceptions of local temperature change. Nature Climate Change, 3, 352-356. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1768
• Howe, P. D. (2018). Perceptions of seasonal weather are linked to beliefs about global climate change: Evidence from Norway. Climatic Change, 148, 467-480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2210-6
• IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2018). Annex I: Glossary. J. B. R., Matthews, (Ed.). Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty içinde (s. 541-562). Cambridge University Press.
• IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2021). Summary for policymakers, Masson-Delmotte. V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu and B. Zhou (Ed.). Climate change 2021: The physical science basis içinde (s. 1-31). Cambridge University Press.
• Kirilenko, A. P. ve Stepchenkova, S. O. (2014). Public microblogging on climate change: One year of Twitter worldwide. Global Environment Change, 26, 171-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.02.008
• Kirilenko, A. P., Molodtsova, T. ve Stepchenkova, S. O. (2015). People as sensors: Mass media and local temperature influence climate change discussion on Twitter. Global Environment Change, 30, 92-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.11.003
• Kobak, K. ve Soğukdere, Ş. (2021). Sosyal medyadaki dezenformasyon: 2021 Türkiye orman yangınları örneği. MEDIAJ, 4(2), 167-189. https://doi.org/10.33464/mediaj.990600
• Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
• Lacroix, K., Gifford, R. ve Rush, J. (2020). Climate change beliefs shape the interpretation of forest fire events, Climatic Change, 159(1), 103-120, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02584-6
• Le Dang, H., Li, E., Bruwer, J. ve Nuberg, I. (2014). Farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and barriers to adaptation: Lessons learned from an exploratory study in Vietnam. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 19, 531-548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-012-9447-6
• Lee, T. M., Markowitz, E. M., Howe, P.D., Ko, C. Y. ve Leiserowitz, A. A. (2015). Predictors of public climate change awareness and risk perception around the world. Nature Climate Change, 5, 1014-1020. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2728
• Levy, B. S. ve Patz, J. A. (2015). Climate change, human rights, and social justice, Annals of Global Health, 81(3), 310-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.008
• Lim, C. H., Kim, Y.S., Won, M., Kim, S.J. ve Lee, W.K. (2019). Can satellite-based data substitute for surveyed data to predict the spatial probability of forest fire? A geostatistical approach to forest fire in the Republic of Korea, Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 10, 719-739. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2018.1543210
• Loureiro, M. L. ve Alló, M. (2021). How has the COVID-19 pandemic affected the climate change debate on Twitter?. Environmental Science & Policy, 124, 451-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2021.07.011
• Lujala, P., Lein, H. ve Rød, J. K. (2014). Climate change, natural hazards, and risk perception: the role of proximity and personal experience. Local Environment, 20, 489-509. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2014.887666
• Marquart-Pyatt, S. T., McCright, A. M., Dietz, T. ve Dunlap, R. E. (2014). Politics eclipses climate extremes for climate change perceptions. Global Environment Change, 29, 246-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.004
• Marshall, C. ve Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research. Sage Publications.
• Marx, G. T. (1999). What’s in a name? Some reflections on the sociology of anonymity, The Information Society: An International Journal, 15(2), 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1080/019722499128565
• McDonald, R. I., Chai, H. Y. ve Newell B.R. (2015). Personal experience and the ‘psychological distance’ of climate change: an integrative review. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 44, 109-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.10.003
• Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education, Jossey-Bass Publishers.
• Mietkiewicz, N., Balch, J. K., Schoennagel, T., Leyk, S., St. Denis, L. A. ve Bradley, B. A. (2020). In the line of Fire: Consequences of human-ignited wildfires to homes in the U.S. (1992-2015). Fire, 3(3), 50. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire3030050
• Mildenberger, M., Lubell, M. ve Hummel, M. (2019). Personalized risk messaging can reduce climate concerns. Global Environment Change, 55, 15-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.01.002
• Mumenthaler, C., Renaud, O., Gava, R. ve Brosch, T. (2021). The impact of local temperature volatility on attention to climate change: Evidence from Spanish tweets, Global Environmental Change, 69, 102286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102286
• Myers, T., Maibach, E., Roser-Renouf, C., Akerlof, K. ve Leiserowitz, A.A. (2013). The relationship between personal experience and belief in the reality of global warming. Nature Climate Change, 3, 343-347. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1754
• Nolan, R. H., Bowman, D. M. J. S., Clarke, H., Haynes, K., Ooi, M. K. J., Price, O. F., Williamson, G. J., Whittaker, J., Bedward, M., Boer, M. M., Cavanagh, V. I., Collins, L., Gibson, R. K., Griebel, A., Jenkins, M. E., Keith, D. A., Mcilwee, A. P., Penman, T. D., Samson, S. A., ve Bradstock, R. A. (2021). What do the Australian black summer fires signify for the global fire crisis?. Fire, 4(4), 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4040097
• Peng, J., Li, Y., Tian, L., Liu, Y. ve Wang, Y. (2015). Vegetation dynamics and associated driving forces in eastern China during 1999-2008. Remote Sensing, 7(10), 13641-13663. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71013641
• Pralle, S. B. (2009). Agenda-setting and climate change. Environmental Politics, 18(5), 781-799. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010903157115
• Reser, J. P. ve Bradley, G. L. (2020). The nature, significance, and influence of perceived personal experience of climate change, WIREs Climate Change, 11(5), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.668
• Richardson, D., Black, A. S., Irving, D., Matear, R. J., Monselesan, D. P., Risbey, J. S., Squire, D. T. ve Tozer, C. R. (2022). Global increase in wildfire potential from compound fire weather and drought. Npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 5, 23. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-022-00248-4
• Roxburgh, N., Guan, D., Shin, K. J., Rand, W., Managi, S., Lovelace, R. ve Meng, J. (2019). Characterising climate change discourse on social media during extreme weather events. Global Environmental Change, 54, 50-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.11.004
• Rudman, L. A., McLean, M. C. ve Bunzl, M. (2013). When truth is personally inconvenient, attitudes change: The impact of extreme weather on implicit support for green politicians and explicit climate-change beliefs. Psychological Science, 24(11) 2290-2296. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613492775
• Saranya, K. R. L., Sudhakar Reddy, C., ve Prasada Rao, P. V. V. (2016). Estimating carbon emissions from forest fires over a decade in Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India, Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 4, 61-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2016.06.001
• Schad, I., Schmitter, P., Saint-Macary, C., Neef, A., Lamers, M., Nguyen, L., Hilger, T. ve Hoffmann, V. (2012). Why do people not learn from flood disasters? Evidence from Vietnam’s northwestern mountains. Natural Hazards, 62(2), 221-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-011-9992-4
• Sisco, M. R., Bosetti, V. ve Weber E. U. (2017). When do extreme weather events generate attention to climate change?. Climatic Change, 143, 227-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-1984-2
• Strauss, A., ve Corbin, J. M. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques, Sage Publications, Inc.
• Sun, Y., ve Han, Z. (2018). Climate change risk perception in Taiwan: Correlation with individual and societal factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(1), 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15010091
• Taylor, A. L., Dessai, S. ve de Bruin, W. B. (2014). Public perception of climate risk and adaptation in the UK: A review of the literatüre. Climate Risk Management, 4, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2014.09.001
• TCMGM (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü). (2021). Türkiye maksimum sıcaklık ortalaması, türkiye minimum sıcaklık ortalaması. https://mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=parametrelerinTurkiyeAnalizi adresinden 17 Temmuz.2022 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• TCMGM (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü). (2022a). 2021 yılı iklim değerlendirmesi. https://www.mgm.gov.tr/FILES/iklim/yillikiklim/2021-iklim-raporu.pdf adresinden 15 Nisan 2023 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• TCMGM, (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü). (2022b). 2021 yılı yağış değerlendirmesi. https://www.mgm.gov.tr/FILES/arastirma/yagis-degerlendirme/2021yagisdegerlendirmesi.pdf adresinden 17 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• TCTOBOGM (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı Orman Genel Müdürlüğü). (2021). Resmi istatistikler, https://www.ogm.gov.tr/tr/e-kutuphane/resmi-istatistikler adresinden 25 Mayıs 2023 tarihinde alınmıştır.
• Vadrevu, K.P., Lasko, K., Giglio, L., Schroeder, W., Biswas, S. ve Justice, C. (2019). Trends in Vegetation fires in South and Southeast Asian Countries. Scientific Reports, 9, 7422. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-43940-x
• van der Velde, I. R., van der Werf, G. R., Houweling, S., Maasakkers, J. D., Borsdorff, T., Landgraf, J., Tol, P. van Kempen, T. A., van Hees, R., Hoogeveen, R., Veefkind, J. P. ve Aben, I. (2021). Vast CO2 release from Australian fires in 2019-2020 constrained by satellite. Nature, 597, 366-369. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03712-y
• Weber, E. U. (2010). What shapes perceptions of climate change?. WIREs Climate Change, 1(3), 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.41
• Whitmarsh, L. (2008). Are flood victims more concerned about climate change than other people? The role of direct experience in risk perception and behavioural response. Journal of Risk Research, 11, 351-374. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669870701552235
• Williams, H. T. P., McMurray, J. R., Kurz, T. ve Lambert, F. H. (2015). Network analysis reveals open forums and echo chambers in social media discussions of climate change, Global Environment Change, 32, 126-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.03.006
• Wong-Parodi, G. ve Rubin, N. B. (2022). Exploring how climate change subjective attribution, personal experience with extremes, concern, and subjective knowledge relate to pro-environmental attitudes and behavioral intentions in the United States, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 79, 101728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101728
• Yeo, S. K., Handlos, Z., Karambelas, A., Su, L. Y.-F., Rose, K. M., Brossard, D. ve Griffin, K. (2017). The influence of temperature on #ClimateChange and #GlobalWarming discourses on Twitter. JCOM, 16(05), A01. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.16050201
• Yin, R. K. (2009). How to do better case studies: (With illustrations from 20 exemplary case studies). L. Bickman ve D. J. Rog (Ed.). The SAGE Handbook of Applied Social Research Methods Vol. 2 içinde (s. 254-282). Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
• Zimbra, D., Abbasi, A., Zeng, D. ve Chen, H. (2018). The state-of-the-art in Twitter sentiment analysis: A review and benchmark evaluation. ACM Transactions on Management Information Systems, 9(2), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1145/3185045