A Literature Review on Impression Management Tactics in CEO Messages

Abstract

In daily life, individuals can exhibit different behaviors in order to influence the opinions of people in their social environment about themselves. This situation is seen in business life as well as in personal life and employees resort to various tactics to influence individuals' impressions about themselves. In terms of senior management, CEOs represent their companies and are followed by their interested parties. Considering the effects of CEOs' statements on both internal and external stakeholders, the impression management tactics in their messages can play an important role in influencing the audience's opinions about the company. Therefore, this study aims to conduct a literature research to identify the impression management tactics in the texts of CEOs'. Twenty-nine articles examined on the subject reveal that CEOs' personality and demographic characteristics, founder status, recognition and culture have an impact on how CEOs manage their impressions. In addition, impression management plays a role in communicating with stakeholders in times of crisis, influencing the forecasting behavior of financial analysts, and providing insight to followers about the possibility of CEOs leaving their positions. Moreover, impression management tactics may differ depending on the type of reports containing CEO messages and the company's performance. Research also reveals similarities and differences in the messages written by CEOs and board chairs. When the studies are analyzed, it is seen that in addition to topics such as sustainability and intellectual capital in CEOs' statements, negative expressions are also discussed within the scope of impression management.

Keywords

• CEO Messages
• Impression Management
• Self-Presentation

CEO Mesajlarındaki İzlenim Yönetimi Taktikleri Üzerine Bir Literatür Araştırması

Abstract

Günlük yaşamda bireyler, sosyal çevrelerindeki insanların kendileri hakkındaki düşüncelerini etkileyebilmek için farklı davranış biçimleri sergileyebilmektedirler. Bu durum kişisel yaşamda olduğu kadar iş yaşamında da görülmekte ve çalışanlar bireylerin kendileri hakkındaki izlenimlerini etkileyebilmek için çeşitli taktiklere başvurmaktadırlar. Üst düzey yönetime bakıldığında ise CEO’lar, şirketlerini temsil etmekte ve ilgilileri tarafından takip edilmektedirler. CEO’ların açıklamalarının gerek iç gerekse dış paydaşlar üzerindeki etkileri dikkate alındığında, mesajlarında yer alan izlenim yönetimi taktikleri izleyicilerin şirket hakkındaki düşüncelerini etkilemede önemli bir rol oynayabilmektedir. Bu nedenle çalışmada, CEO’ların metinlerinde yer alan izlenim yönetimi taktilerini belirlemeye yönelik bir literatür araştırması yapılması hedeflenmiştir. Konu ile ilgili incelenen yirmi dokuz makale sonucunda CEO’ların kişilik ve demografik özelliklerinin, kurucu olma statülerinin, tanınırlıklarının ve kültürlerinin CEO’ların izlenimlerini nasıl yönettikleri üzerinde etkili olduğu görülmektedir. Bununla birlikte izlenim yönetimi kriz dönemlerinde paydaşlarla iletişimde, finansal analistlerin tahmin davranışlarını etkilemede ve CEO’ların görevden ayrılma ihtimallerine ilişkin takipçilere fikir sunmada rol oynamaktadır. Ayrıca CEO’ların mesajlarının yer aldığı raporların türü ve şirketin performansına göre de izlenim yönetimi taktikleri farklılaşabilmektedir. Araştırmalar aynı zamanda CEO'lar ve yönetim kurulu başkanları tarafından yazılan mesajlardaki benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları da ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Çalışmalar incelendiğinde, CEO'ların açıklamalarında yer alan sürdürülebilirlik ve entelektüel sermaye gibi konuların yanı sıra olumsuz ifadelerin de izlenim yönetimi kapsamında ele alındığı görülmektedir.

Keywords

• CEO Mesajları
• İzlenim Yönetimi
• Benlik Sunumu

References

1. Abebe, M. A., Li, P., Acharya, K., & Daspit, J. J. (2020). The founder chief executive officer: A review of current insights and directions for future research. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 28(6), 406436. [CrossRef]
2. Albertini, E., Berger-Remy, F., Lefrancq, S., Morgana, L., Petković, M., & Walliser, E. (2021). Voluntary disclosure and intellectual capital: how CEOs mobilise discretionary accounting narratives to account for value creation stemming from intellectual capital. Journal of Applied Accounting Research, 22(4), 687705. [CrossRef]
3. Alshorman, S. A. A., & Shanahan, M. (2022). The voice of profit: Exploring the tone of Australian CEO's letters to shareholders after the global financial crisis. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 27(1), 127147. [CrossRef]
4. Alshorman, S. A. A., & Shanahan, M. (2023). Singing from the same hymn sheet: are the chair and CEO ‘on the same page’in their annual letters to shareholders? Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 28(4), 655670. [CrossRef]
5. Arvidsson, S. (2023). CEO talk of sustainability in CEO letters: Towards the inclusion of a sustainability embeddedness and value-creation perspective. Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal, 14(7), 2661. [CrossRef]
6. Balkan Akan, B. & Oran, F. Ç. (2022). Investigation of impression management tactics exhibited by powerful businesswomen in Turkey by content analysis. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 22(1), 103120. [CrossRef]
7. Barkemeyer, R., Comyns, B., Figge, F., & Napolitano, G. (2014). CEO statements in sustainability reports: Substantive information or background noise? Accounting Forum, 38(4), 241257. [CrossRef]
8. Bassyouny, H., Abdelfattah, T., & Tao, L. (2020). Beyond narrative disclosure tone: The upper echelons theory perspective. International Review of Financial Analysis, 70, 101499. [CrossRef]

9. Bolino, M. C., Kacmar, K. M., Turnley, W. H., & Gilstrap, J. B. (2008). A multi-level review of impression management motives and behaviors. Journal of Management, 34(6), 1080–1109. [CrossRef]
10. Bolino, M., Long, D., & Turnley, W. (2016). Impression management in organizations: Critical questions, answers, and areas for future research. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3, 377–406. [CrossRef]
11. Boudt, K., & Thewissen, J. (2019). Jockeying for position in CEO letters: Impression management and sentiment analytics. Financial Management, 48(1), 77115. [CrossRef]
12. Bozeman, D. P., & Kacmar, K. M. (1997). A cybernetic model of impression management processes in organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69(1), 9–30. [CrossRef]
13. Callagher, L., & Garnevska, E. (2023). Multistakeholder impression management tactics and sustainable development intentions in agri-food co-operatives. Journal of Management & Organization, 121. [CrossRef]
14. Christopher, A. N., Lasane, T. P., Troisi, J. D., & Park, L. E. (2007). Materialism, defensive and assertive self–presentational tactics, and life satisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(10), 11451162. [CrossRef]
15. Collewaert, V., Vanacker, T., Anseel, F., & Bourgois, D. (2021). The sandwich game: Founder-CEOs and forecasting as impression management. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(1), 106075. [CrossRef]
16. Cooper, S., & Slack, R. (2015). Reporting practice, impression management and company performance: a longitudinal and comparative analysis of water leakage disclosure. Accounting and Business Research, 45(6-7), 801–840. [CrossRef]
17. Craig, R. J., & Brennan, N. M. (2012). An exploration of the relationship between language choice in CEO letters to shareholders and corporate reputation. Accounting Forum, 36(3), 166177. [CrossRef]
18. Cusin, J., & Passebois‐Ducros, J. (2019). Impact of assertive and defensive impression management tactics on recruiter evaluation: The case of post‐failure entrepreneurs in employment interviews. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 37(4), 396410. [CrossRef]
19. D’Northwood, G. (2017). BP plc 2010–a case of linguistic legitimation? Journal of Applied Accounting Research, 18(4), 480495. [CrossRef]
20. Demir, K. (2003). Türkiye’deki resmi ve özel lise öğretmenlerinin izlenim yönetimi. Educational Administration in Theory & Practice, 33, 82107. [Turkish]
21. Dilchert, S., & Ones, D. S. (2012). Environmental sustainability in and of organizations. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5(4), 503511. [CrossRef]
22. Elsbach, K. D., Sutton, R. I., & Principe, K. E. (1998). Averting expected challenges through anticipatory impression management: A study of hospital billing. Organization Science, 9(1), 6886. [CrossRef]
23. Fredrickson, J. W., Hambrick, D. C., & Baumrin, S. (1988). A model of CEO dismissal. Academy of Management Review, 13(2), 255270. [CrossRef]
24. Gardner, W. L., & Martinko, M. J. (1988). Impression management in organizations. Journal of Management, 14(2), 321338. [CrossRef]
25. Giacalone, R. A., & Rosenfeld, P. (Eds.). (1989). Impression management in the organization. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
26. Giri, V. N. (2006). Culture and communication style. The Review of Communication, 6(1-2), 124130. [CrossRef] Goffman, E. (1956). The presentation of self in everyday life. University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre.
27. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.
28. Gudykunst, W. B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K., & Heyman, S. (1996). The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures. Human Communication Research, 22(4), 510543. [CrossRef]
29. Guthey, E., & Jackson, B. (2005). CEO portraits and the authenticity paradox*. Journal of Management Studies, 42(5), 1057–1082. [CrossRef]
30. Gwal, R. (2015). Tactics of impression management: Relative success on workplace relationship. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 2(2), 3744. [CrossRef]
31. Highhouse, S., Brooks, M. E., & Gregarus, G. (2009). An organizational impression management perspective on the formation of corporate reputations. Journal of Management, 35(6), 14811493. [CrossRef]
32. Huaman-Ramirez, R., & Merunka, D. (2021). Celebrity CEOs’ credibility, image of their brands and consumer materialism. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 38(6), 638651. [CrossRef]
33. Im, J., Kim, H., & Miao, L. (2021). CEO letters: Hospitality corporate narratives during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 92, 102701. [CrossRef]
34. Jakovljev, I., & Milin, P. (2017). The relationship between thematic, lexical, and syntactic features of written texts and personality traits. Psihologija, 50(1), 6784. [CrossRef]
35. Jensen, M. (2016). Personality traits and nonverbal communication patterns. International Journal of Social Science Studies, 4(5), 5770. [CrossRef]
36. Jones, E. E. (1964). Ingratiation: A social psychological analysis. Appleton Century-Crofts.
37. Jones, E.E., & Pittman, T.S. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self, Vol. 1 (pp. 231262). Erlbaum.
38. Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34–47. [CrossRef]
39. Leary, M. R. (2001). Impression management, psychology of. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 7245–7248. [CrossRef]
40. Lee, G., Cho, S. Y., Arthurs, J., & Lee, E. K. (2020). Celebrity CEO, identity threat, and impression management: Impact of celebrity status on corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Research, 111, 6984. [CrossRef]
41. Lee, W. W. L. (2020). Impression management through hedging and boosting: A cross-cultural investigation of the messages of US and Chinese corporate leaders. Lingua, 242, 102872. [CrossRef]
42. Lee, W. W. L. (2021). Emotion in business communication: A comparative study of attitude markers in the discourse of US and mainland Chinese corporations. Discourse & Communication, 15(6), 629649. [CrossRef]
43. Liu, P., & Nguyen, H. T. (2020). CEO characteristics and tone at the top inconsistency. Journal of Economics and Business, 108, 105887. [CrossRef]
44. Liu, Q., Bilal., & Komal, B. (2022). A corpus-based comparison of the chief executive officer statements in annual reports and corporate social responsibility reports. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 851405. [CrossRef] Lucero, M., Tan Teng Kwang, A., & Pang, A. (2009). Crisis leadership: When should the CEO step up? Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 14(3), 234248. [CrossRef]
45. Mardini, G. H., & Lahyani, F. E. (2022). Impact of firm performance and corporate governance mechanisms on intellectual capital disclosures in CEO statements. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 23(2), 290312. [CrossRef]
46. Martins, A., Gomes, D., Oliveira, L., & Ribeiro, J. L. (2019), Telling a success story through the president’s letter. Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management, 16(3), 403433. [CrossRef]
47. Metts, S., & Grohskopf, E. (2003). Impression management: Goals, strategies, and skills. In J. O. Greene & B. R. Burleson (Eds.), Handbook of communication and social interaction skills (pp. 357–399). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
48. Miftha, P., Rindang Senja, A., Rini, S., & Anang Dwi, S. (2023). Corpus linguistics on the impression management strategy of Indonesian public officials after Covid-19 denial statements. KOME, 11(1), 28–60. [CrossRef]
49. Mlawu, L., Matenda, F. R., & Sibanda, M. (2023). Linking financial performance with CEO statements: Testing impression management theory. Risks, 11(3), 55. [CrossRef]
50. Mohamed, A. A., Gardner, W. L., & Paolillo, J. G. (1999). A taxonomy of organizational impression management tactics. Journal of Competitiveness Studies, 7(1), 108130.
51. Na, H. J., Lee, K. C., Choi, S. U., & Kim, S. T. (2020). Exploring CEO messages in sustainability management reports: Applying sentiment mining and sustainability balanced scorecard methods. Sustainability, 12(2), 590. [CrossRef]
52. Nel, G. F., Arendse-Fourie, S. L., & Ontong, J. M. (2022). The association between optimism and future performance: Evidence of impression management from chief executive officer and chairperson letters. South African Journal of Business Management, 53(1), a3183. [CrossRef]
53. Newman, M. L., Groom, C. J., Handelman, L. D., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2008). Gender differences in language use: An analysis of 14,000 text samples. Discourse Processes, 45(3), 211236. [CrossRef]
54. Ngai, C. S. B., & Singh, R. G. (2014). Communication with stakeholders through corporate web sites. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 28(3), 352–394. [CrossRef]
55. Ogden, S., & Clarke, J. (2005). Customer disclosures, impression management and the construction of legitimacy. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 18(3), 313–345. [CrossRef]
56. Ozsozgun Caliskan, A., Esen, E., & Barkemeyer, R. (2021). Impression management tactics in the CEO statements of Turkish sustainability reports. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility, 30(4), 485506. [CrossRef]
57. Öztürk, E. B., & Noorderhaven, N. G. (2018). Influence of peers’ types of trust on trust repair: The role of apologies. Psychological Studies, 63(3), 253265. [CrossRef]
58. Patelli, L., & Pedrini, M. (2014). Is the optimism in CEO’s letters to shareholders sincere? Impression management versus communicative action during the economic crisis. Journal of Business Ethics, 124, 1934. [CrossRef]
59. Popescu, C. R. G. (2019). “Intellectual capital”: Major role, key importance and decisive influences on organizations’ performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 509857, 117.
60. Ramnath, S., Rock, S., & Shane, P. (2008). The financial analyst forecasting literature: A taxonomy with suggestions for further research. International Journal of Forecasting, 24(1), 3475. [CrossRef]
61. Runesson, E., & Samani, N. (2023). Goodwill or “no-will”: Hubris in the tone at the top. Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics, 19(1), 100331. [CrossRef]
62. Sampson, E. (1997). 30 minutes to make the right impression. Kogan Page.
63. Schlenker, B. R., & Pontari, B. A. (2000). The strategic control of information: Impression management and self-presentation in daily life. In A. Tesser, R. B. Felson, & J. M. Suls (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on self and identity (pp. 199232). American Psychological Association. [CrossRef]
64. Schneider, D. J. (1981). Tactical self-presentations: Toward a broader conception. In J. T. Tedeschi (Ed.), Impression management theory and social psychological research (pp. 2340). Academic Press. [CrossRef] Schütz, A. (1998). Assertive, offensive, protective, and defensive styles of self-presentation: A taxonomy. The Journal of Psychology, 132(6), 611–628. [CrossRef]
65. Shin, T., & You, J. (2020). Changing words: How temporal consistency in a CEO's use of language toward shareholders and stakeholders affects CEO dismissal. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 28(1), 4768. [CrossRef]
66. Steinmetz, J., Sezer, O., & Sedikides, C. (2017). Impression mismanagement: People as inept self‐presenters. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 11(6), e12321. [CrossRef]
67. Stevens, C. K., & Kristof, A. L. (1995). Making the right impression: A field study of applicant impression management during job interviews. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(5), 587–606. [CrossRef]
68. Tailab, M. M., BenYoussef, N., & Al-Okaily, J. (2023). Firm performance as a mediator of the relationship between CEO narcissism and positive rhetorical tone. Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFRA-06-2022-0224 [CrossRef]
69. Tedeschi, J. T., & Riess, M. (1981). Identities, the phenomenal self, and laboratory research. Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research, 322. [CrossRef]
70. Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing integrative literature reviews: Guidelines and examples. Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356367. [CrossRef]
71. Williams Jr, R. I., Clark, L. A., Clark, W. R., & Raffo, D. M. (2021). Re-examining systematic literature review in management research: Additional benefits and execution protocols. European Management Journal, 39(4), 521533. [CrossRef]
72. Yan, B., Aerts, W., & Thewissen, J. (2019). The informativeness of impression management− financial analysts and rhetorical style of CEO letters. Pacific Accounting Review, 31(3), 462496. [CrossRef]
73. Yan, X. (2017). Corporate governance and intellectual capital disclosures in CEOs’ statements. Nankai Business Review International, 8(1), 221. [CrossRef]
74. Zhou, L., Long, W., Qu, X., & Yao, D. (2023). Celebrity CEOs and corporate investment: A psychological contract perspective. International Review of Financial Analysis, 87, 102636. [CrossRef]