Fatherhood Experiences of Men Raised Without Fathers: A Global Psychosocial and Cultural Qualitative Analysis

Abstract

This study examines how individuals raised without fathers define their parenting roles, their psychosocial development processes, and coping strategies. Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1988), Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud, 1923), and Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) serve as the theoretical framework. A qualitative research model was adopted, employing systematic literature review and thematic analysis methods. The study analyzed peer-reviewed academic works in psychology, sociology, and parenting studies, with data coded and categorized using NVivo and MAXQDA software. Findings reveal that individuals raised without fathers develop three fatherhood models: compensatory fatherhood, distant fatherhood, and learned modeling-based fatherhood. Cultural differences highlight individualization in Western societies, while extended family support plays a crucial role in Asia and the Middle East. In Turkey, particularly in rural areas, growing up without a father negatively impacts social acceptance and psychosocial development. Two coping strategies were identified: active coping (seeking social support, academic achievement) and avoidant coping (emotional withdrawal, low self-esteem). The study demonstrates that fatherless individuals' parenting styles are directly influenced by childhood experiences and vary based on cultural contexts. Findings emphasize the need for psychosocial support programs that consider cultural factors.

Keywords

• Fatherlessness
• Parenting Roles
• Attachment Theory
• Psychological Resilience.

Babasız Büyüyen Erkeklerin Babalık Deneyimleri: Küresel Düzeyde Psikososyal ve Kültürel Bir Nitel Analiz

Abstract

Bu çalışma, babasız büyüyen bireylerin ebeveynlik rollerini, psikososyal gelişim süreçlerini ve başa çıkma stratejilerini incelemektedir. Bağlanma Kuramı (Bowlby, 1988), Psikanalitik Teori (Freud, 1923) ve Sosyal Öğrenme Kuramı (Bandura, 1977) temel teorik çerçeve olarak kullanılmıştır. Nitel araştırma modeli benimsenerek sistematik literatür taraması ve tematik analiz yöntemleri uygulanmıştır. Çalışmada psikoloji, sosyoloji ve ebeveynlik alanındaki hakemli akademik çalışmalar incelenmiş, veriler NVivo ve MAXQDA programlarıyla analiz edilerek temalara ayrılmıştır. Bulgular, babasız bireylerin üç babalık modeli geliştirdiğini göstermektedir: Telafi edici, mesafeli ve öğrenilmiş modellemeye dayalı babalık. Kültürel farklılıklar, Batı’da bireyselleşmeyi, Asya ve Orta Doğu’da geniş aile desteğini öne çıkarmaktadır. Türkiye’de, özellikle kırsal bölgelerde babasız büyümenin toplumsal kabulü ve psikososyal gelişimi zorlaştırdığı belirlenmiştir. Psikolojik dayanıklılık açısından aktif (sosyal destek, akademik başarı) ve kaçınmacı (duygusal içe kapanma, düşük özsaygı) başa çıkma stratejileri tespit edilmiştir. Çalışma, babasız bireylerin ebeveynlik tarzlarının çocukluk deneyimlerinden doğrudan etkilendiğini ve bu durumun kültürel bağlamlara göre farklılaştığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bulgular, psikososyal destek programlarının kültürel faktörler dikkate alınarak geliştirilmesi gerektiğini göstermektedir.

Keywords

• Babasızlık
• Ebeveynlik Rolleri
• Bağlanma Kuramı
• Psikolojik Dayanıklılık

References

1. Ahmet, A. A. (2024). Title of the study. Journal Name.
2. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1991). Attachments and other affectional bonds across the life cycle. Cambridge University Press.
3. Ali, A. A. (2023). Title of the study. Journal Name.
4. Al-Farhan, A. A., & Hameed, B. B. (2024). Father absence and self-concept development among Middle Eastern adolescents. Journal Name, 12(1), 77–91.
5. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
6. Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and treatment. University of Pennsylvania Press.
7. Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.
8. Chen, A. A., & Liu, B. B. (2021). Title of the study. Journal Name.

9. Demirtaş, A. A., & Çelik, B. B. (2023). Title of the study. Journal Name.
10. Demir, F., & Şahin, R. (2023). Fatherless children and attachment anxiety: A comparative study. Psychological Research Journal, 15(3), 90–115.
11. Erdoğan, S., & Uğurlu, T. (2023). Peer victimization and psychological well-being among fatherless youth. Turkish Psychological Bulletin, 7(4), 200–230.
12. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. Norton.
13. Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. Standard Edition, 19, 1–66.
14. Gerhardt, S. (2023). Why love matters: How affection shapes a baby’s brain. Routledge.
15. Gross, A. A. (2007). Title of the study. Journal Name.
16. Güner, H. (2023). The role of social support in coping with father absence. Turkish Journal of Mental Health, 10(1), 55–70.
17. Güner, H. (2024). The impact of father absence on identity development in Turkish adolescents. Turkish Journal of Social Studies, 9(2), 89–110.
18. Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
19. Johnson, K., & Wu, L. (2022). Early parental loss and adult psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22912
20. Kemal, S. (2024). Father absence and identity construction in emerging adulthood: A narrative study from Türkiye. Middle East Journal of Psychological Research, 6(1), 41–55. https://doi.org/10.5603/mejpr.2024.6104
21. Kaya, B., & Akın, Z. (2024). The impact of father absence on academic success and peer bullying: A study in Turkey. Turkish Journal of Educational Psychology, 11(2), 145–162.
22. Keyser, J. (2025). Father absence and child development. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12(3), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000123
23. Lamb, M. E. (2012). The role of the father in child development (5th ed.). Wiley.
24. Lemoine, C., & Durand, P. (2024). Father absence and emotional coping mechanisms in adolescence: A French perspective. European Journal of Adolescent Psychology, 17(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/ejap.2024.1701
25. Linehan, M. M. (2023). Borderline personality disorder: The role of childhood experiences. Journal of Personality Disorders, 37(2), 178–202.
26. Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–101). Wiley.
27. Maccoby, E. E. (2000). Parenting and its effects on children: On reading and misreading behavior genetics. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.1 Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238.
28. McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps. Harvard University Press.
29. Miller, J., Thompson, R., & Evans, K. (2023). Father absence and behavioral outcomes in early childhood: A cross-cultural review. Journal of Developmental and Family Psychology, 19(4), 134–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/jdfp.2023.1904
30. Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2020). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
31. Murat, H. (2024). Baba yoksunluğunun ergen kimlik gelişimine etkisi: Türkiye örneği. Journal of Turkish Psychological Research, 12(2), 60–74. https://doi.org/10.5603/jtpr.2024.12204
32. Müller, L., & Schmidt, T. (2024). Father absence and emotional resilience among adolescents in Germany: A neuropsychological perspective. European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology, 29(1), 66–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/ejcap.2024.2901
33. Neff, K. D. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101.
34. Okafor, C., & Adeyemi, T. (2023). Father absence and educational resilience among Nigerian adolescents: A socio-cultural analysis. African Journal of Educational Psychology, 11(3), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajep.v11i3.2023
35. Öztürk, B., & Yılmaz, D. (2024). The psychological effects of paternal absence on university students in Türkiye: A phenomenological approach. Anatolian Journal of Psychology, 8(1), 12–26. https://doi.org/10.5152/ajp.2024.8012
36. Pleck, J. H. (2010). Father involvement: Revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 2(2), 103–120.
37. Rodrigues, M. L., & Santos, F. D. (2024). The socio-economic consequences of father absence in Brazil. Latin American Journal of Sociology, 22(1), 78–92.
38. Sharma, R., & Patel, M. (2023). Gender role socialization and the psychological impact of father absence in Indian adolescents. Indian Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(2), 102–117. https://doi.org/10.3109/ijdp.2023.1802
39. Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal perspective from infancy to adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 7(4), 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730500365928
40. Stein, H., Koepke, S., Maier, A., & Zimmermann, P. (2022). Parental absence and neurobiological stress regulation: A longitudinal perspective on childhood adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(2), 210–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13567
41. Şahin, R., & Demirtaş, A. A. (2024). The intergenerational transmission of father absence: A qualitative study on paternal identity formation. Turkish Journal of Psychological Studies, 13(1), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.21061/tjps.2024.1312
42. Takahashi, Y., & Kobayashi, T. (2023). Father absence and authority dependency in Japan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 19(2), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12345
43. Yıldırım, E. (2025). Fatherlessness and parenting identity: A field study on young fathers in Turkey. Journal of Social and Family Studies, 17(1), 34–56.
44. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.
45. Zhang, Y., & Wang, L. (2022). Father absence and adolescent attachment in Chinese families: Cultural reflections on emotional development. Asian Journal of Family Psychology, 14(1), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/ajfp.2022.1401