Histories and Spaces of Terrorism in Africa: The Post-9/11 Strategic Challenge of Somalia’s al Shabab

Öz

Despite terrorism’s long history, there is still today no consistent or widely agreed upon definition of either what constitutes terrorism or who the terrorist is. Africa’s strategic significance in the “war on terrorism” grew post-9/11 along with acceptance of the idea that weak and failing states pose a threat to international security by providing an ideal environment for terrorism, and in particular, for the rise of radical Islam.. Somalia is often cited as the paradigm of a weak state, and the post-9/11 counterterrorism discourses propose that the promotion of democracy and good governance will provide the most effective strategy to counter Somalia’s al Shabab. This article aims to discuss the post-9/11 strategic challenge of Somalia’s al Shabab in the context of histories and spaces of terror in Africa

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Africa, al Shabab, post-9/11 counterterrorism strategies, radical Islam, Somalia, terrorism, weak states

Kaynakça

1. Ahmed, E., 1998. Terrorism: Theirs and Ours. Paper presented at the University of
2. Colorado, Boulder (October 12, 1998). http://www.sangam.org/ANALYSIS/Ahmad. htm. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
3. Al Jazeera, 10 February 2012. Al Shabab “Joins Ranks” With Al Qaeda. http://www.al- jazeera.com/news/africa/2012/02/201221054649118317.html Retrieved 21 Au- gustus 2012.
4. AMISOM, 2013. AMISOM Background. http://amisom-au.org/about/amisom-back- ground. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
5. AMISOM, 2013. AMISOM Mandate. http://amisom-au.org/about/amisom-mandate. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
6. Ayinde, O.A., 2010. Beyond 9/11: Histories and Spaces of Terrorism in Africa. In
7. Smith, M.S. (ed). Securing Africa: Post-9/11 Discourses on Terrorism. Farnham: Ashgate, pp. 51-66. Bobbit, P., 2006. The Terrorist War on the Market-State: A Plague in a Time of Feast. In
8. Katona, P., Intriligator, M.D. and Sullivan, J.P. (eds). Countering Terrorism and WMD: Creating a Global Counter-Terrorism Network. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 218-234. Bobbit, P., 2008. Terror and Consent: The Wars for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

9. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 5 October 2012. Q&A: Who are Somalia’s Al
10. Shabaab? http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15336689. Retrieved 6 February
11. Bryden, M., 2003. No Quick Fixes: Coming to Terms With Terrorism, Islam and Statelessness in Somalia. The Journal of Conflict Studies, Fall (2003): pp. 24-56.
12. Chitiyo, K and Rader, A., 2012. Somalia 2012: Ending the Transition?. The Brenthurst Foundation
13. Discussion Paper 4. http://www.thebrenthurstfoundation.org/files/brenthurst_commis- ioned_reports/ Brenthurst-paper-201204-Somalia-2012-Ending-the- Transition. pdf. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
14. CIA World Factbook, 2013. Somalia. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/so.html. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
15. Combs, C.C., 2006. Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
16. Dagne, T., 2010. Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace,
17. Congressional Research Services Report prepared for Congress, RL33911 (October ).
18. Freedman, L., 2002. (ed). Superterrorism: Policy Responces. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
19. Gearson, J., 2002. The Nature of Modern Terrorism. In Freedman, L. (ed).
20. Superterrorism: Policy Responces. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 7-24. Gettleman, J. and Ibrahim, M., 2011. Shabab Concede Control of Capital to Somalia
21. Government. New York Times (August 6, 2011). http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/07/world/africa/07somalia.html?_r=2. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
22. Guardian Online, 16 September, 2012. Somalia’s New President Officially Takes Power
23. After Assassination Attempt. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/sep/16/somalia- president-power-assassination-attempt. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
24. Gupta, D.K., 2008. Understanding Terrorism and Political Violence: The life cycle of birth, growth, transformation, and demise. Abingdon: Routledge.
25. Harper, M., 2012. Somalia: Failed State or Fantasy Land? BBC News (August 3, 2012). http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19099442. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
26. Heywood, A., 2007. Politics. 3rd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
27. Hesse, B.J., 2010. The Myth of ‘Somalia’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 28(3): pp. 247-259.
28. Holzer, G-S., 2008. Political Islam in Somalia: A Fertile Ground for Radical Islamic
29. Groups? Geopolitics of the Middle East, 1(1): pp. 23-42. Hurwood, B.J., 1970. Society and the Assassin: A Background Book on Political Murder.
30. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies. Ibrahim, M., 2010. Somalia and Global Terrorism: A Growing Connection? Journal of
31. Contemporary African Studies, 28(3): pp. 283-295. International Crisis Group, 2005. Somalia’s Islamists. Africa Report No 100 (December ).
32. International Crisis Group, 2008. Somalia: To Move Beyond the Failed State. Africa Report No 147 (December 2008).
33. International Crisis Group, 2010. Somalia’s Divided Islamists. Policy Briefing, Africa Briefing No 74 (May 2010).
34. International Crisis Group, 2011. Somalia: The Transitional Federal Government on Life
35. Support. Africa Report No 170. Jackson, R., 2005. Security, Democracy and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism.
36. Democracy and Security, 1 (2005): pp. 147-171.
37. Kaplan, S., 2010. Rethinking State-Building in a Failed State. The Washington Quarterly, (1): pp. 81-97.
38. Kasaija, A.P., 2010. The UN-led Djibouti Peace Process for Somalia 2008-2009: Results and Problems. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 28(3): pp. 261-282.
39. Katona, P., 2006. The Historical Impact of Terrorism, Epidemics and Weapons of Mass
40. Destruction. In Katona, P., Intriligatorm M.D. and Sullivan, J.P. (eds). Countering Terrorism and WMD: Creating a Global Counter-Terrorism Network. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 13-32. Law, R.D., 2009. Terrorism: A History. Cambridge: Polity Press.
41. Linke, A. and Raleigh, C., 2011. State and Stateless Violence in Somalia. African
42. Geographical Review, 30(1): pp. 47-66. Lutz, J.M. and Lutz, B.J., 2004. Global Terrorism. London: Routledge.
43. Mahan, S. and Griset, P.L., 2008. Terrorism in Perspective. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
44. McGowan, P.J., Cornelissen, S. and Nel, P., 2010. Power, Wealth and Global Equity: An
45. International Relations Textbook for Africa. 3rd ed. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press. Menkhaus, K., 2002. Political Islam in Somalia. Middle East Policy, 9(1): pp. 109-123.
46. Menkhaus, K., 2007. The Crisis in Somalia: Tragedy in Five Acts. African Affairs, (204): pp. 357-390.
47. Mills, G., 2004. Africa’s New Strategic Significance. The Washington Quarterly, 27(4): pp. 157-169.
48. National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2002. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/63562.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
49. Neumann, P.R., 2009. Old and New Terrorism. Cambridge: Polity Press.
50. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2013. Somalia
51. Fact Sheet. http://data.unhcr.org/horn-of-africa/regional.php. Retrieved 6 February Organization of African Unity Convention on the Prevention and Countering of Terrorism. (Adopted 14 July 1999). Article 1, Section 3(a). http://au.int/en/sites/default/files/
52. OAU_CONVENTION_PREVENTION_COMBATING_TERRORISM. pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
53. Pham, J.P., 2007. Next Front? Evolving United States-African Strategic Relations in the “War on Terrorism” and Beyond. Comparative Strategy, 26 (2007): pp. 39-54.
54. Rapoport, D.C., 2002. The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11. Anthropoet- ics, 8(1).
55. Rice, C., 2008. Designation of al-Shabab. Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism
56. (March 18, 2008). http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/143205.htm. Retrieved on February 2013.
57. Rice, S., 2001. Testimony before the US House Committee on International Relations (November 2001). http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/intlrel/hfa76191.000/hfa76191_0f.htm.
58. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
59. Robespierre, M., 1794. “On the Moral and Political Principles of Domestic Policy”.
60. Justification of the Use of Terror. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/robespierre- terror.asp. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
61. Shank, M., 2007. Understanding Political Islam in Somalia. Contemporary Islam.
62. Shaw, T.M., 2008. From Terrorism to Human Security in Africa. In Christopher
63. Ankerson, C. (ed). Understanding Global Terror. Cambridge: Polity Press, pp. 130-150. Sheehan, M., 2008. The Changing Character of War. In Baylis, J., Smith, S. and Owens,
64. P. (eds). The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to InternationalRela- tions. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 210-225. Shinn, D., 2011. Al Shabaab’s Foreign Threat to Somalia. Orbis, Spring (2011): pp. 215.
65. Simpson, M., 2010. An Islamic Solution to State Failure in Somalia. Geopolitics of the Middle East, 2(1): pp. 31-49.
66. Smith, M.S., 2010. Terrorism Thinking: “9/11 Changed Everything”. In Smith, M.S. (ed).
67. Securing Africa: Post-9/11 Discourses on Terrorism. Farnham: Ashgate, pp. 1-30. United Nations Security Council, 2007. Resolution 1744 (S/RES/1744). http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1744. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
68. United Nations Security Council, 2013. Resolution 2093 (S/RES/2093). http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2093. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
69. United States Department of State, 2002. Patterns of Global Terrorism (May 2002). http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/10286.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
70. Walls, M., 2009. The Emergence of a Somali State: Building Peace from Civil War in
71. Somaliland. African Affairs, 108(432): pp. 371-389. Whitaker, B.E., 2008. Reluctant Partners: Fighting Terrorism and Promoting Democ- racy in
72. Kenya. International Studies Perspectives, 9: pp. 254-271. Whittaker, D.J., 2012. The Terrorism Reader. 4th ed. Abingdon: Routledge.
73. Wilkinson, P., 2001. Politics, Diplomacy and Peace Processes: Pathways out of Terror- ism?
74. In Taylor, M. and Horgan, J. (eds). The Future of Terrorism. London: Frank Cass Publishers, pp. 66-82.