Harp, Siyasi Liderlik ve Devlet Oluşumu: Zulu Krallığı

Yıl 2022, , 329 - 347, 31.07.2022

Mathieu Deflem Çevirmen: Melih Furkan Çiçekci

https://doi.org/10.54699/andhd.1050300

Öz

19. yüzyıl Zulu Krallığı’nın kökeni ve evrimi, iki karşıt devlet oluşumu (state formation) teorisini incelemek için kullanılmıştır: Robert Carneiro’nun sınırlandırma teorisi (circumscrtiption theory) ve Elman Service’in kurumsallaşmış liderlik teorisi. Her iki teori de Zulu’ların siyasal gelişimini kısmen berraklaştırmıştır. Carneiro’nun teorisi devletin kökenini ve bölgesel genişliğini açıklarken Service’in teorisi Zulu devletindeki siyasal rollerin farklılaşmaya başlamasını açıklayabilmiştir. Zulu devlet oluşumunun nedenlerinin iki alternatif izahı, Carneiro ve Service’in birbirlerinden ayrılan teorik perspektiflerini bütünleştirmek için tartışılmıştır. İlk olarak Zulu Kralı Shaka’nın rolü, yalnızca Shaka’nın fetih mücadelesinin Zulu Krallığı’nın birleşmesi için araçsal olduğu ölçüde siyasi olarak anlamlı kabul edilmelidir. İkinci olarak Zulu siyasetindeki diğer gelişmeler, dağınık bir kabileden sistematik bir askeri devlete uzanan sınırlı yapısal değişiklikleri içermektedir. Doğuşu ve sonraki dönüşümleri dahil olmak üzere siyasi oluşumların analizi, “tek hatlı evrim (unilineal evolution)” terimleriyle değil, çok boyutlu süreçsel bir bakış açısıyla yapılmalıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Devlet Oluşumu, Sınırlanma Teorisi, Kurumsallaşmış Liderlik, Zulu Krallığı, Erken Devlet

Warfare, Political Leadership, and State Formation: The Case of the Zulu Kingdom, 1808-1879

Öz

The origin and evolution of the 19th-century Zulu Kingdom are used to examine two competing state formation theories: Robert Carneiro’s circumscription theory and Elman Service’s theory of institutionalized leadership. Both theories partly clarify Zulu political developments. Carneiro’s theory explains the origin and territorial expansion of the Zulu empire, while Service’s theory can account for the beginning differentiation of political roles in the Zulu state. Two alternative explanations of the causes of Zulu state formation are discussed to integrate the diverging theoretical perspectives of Carneiro and Service. First, the role of the Zulu King, Shaka, should be considered politically relevant only inasmuch as Shaka’s wars of conquest were instrumental for the unification of the Zulu Kingdom. Second, further developments in Zulu politics involved limited structural change from dispersed tribes to a unified military state. The analysis of political formations, including their origin and further transformation, should not be conducted in unilinear evolutionary terms, but from a multidimensional processual perspective.

Anahtar Kelimeler

State Formation, Circumscription theory, Zulu Kingdom, Institutionalized Leadership, Early State

Kaynakça

• ALGAZE, Guillermo: “Expansionary Dynamics of Some Early Pristine States”, American Athropologist, 1993, Volume 95, Number 2, pp. 304-333.
• BECKER, Peter: Rule of Fear: The Life and Times of Dingane. Green and Co. London Longmans, 1964.
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “A Theory of the Origin of the State”, Science, 1970, Volume 169, pp. 733-738 (A Theory).
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “Chiefdom-level warfare as exemplified in Fiji and the Cauca valley”, (Ed.) HAAS, Jonathan: The Anthropology of War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 190-211. (Chiefdom)
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “Cross-currents in the theory of state formation”, American Ethnologist, 1987, Volume 14, Number 4, pp. 756-770 (Cross-currents).
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “Political expansion as an expression of the principle of competitive exclusion”, (Ed.) COHEN, Ronald / SERVICE, Elman R., Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Philadelphia, 1978, pp. 205-223 (Political).
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “The chiefdom: precursor of the state”, (Ed.) JONES, Grant D. / KAUTZ, Robert B.: The Transition to Statehood in the New World, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1981, pp. 834-871 (The Cheifdom).
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “The Circumscription Theory: Challenge and Response”, American Behavioral Scientist, 1988, Volume 31, Number 4, pp. 497-511 (The Circumscription).
• CARNEIRO, Robert L.: “The role of warfare in political evolution: past results and future projections”, (Ed.) AUSENDA, Giorgio: Effects of War on Society, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress, San Marino, 1992, pp. 87-102 (The Role).
• CHANAIWA, David S.: “The Zulu Revolution: State Formation in a Pastoralist Society”, African Studies Review, 1980, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 1-20.
• CHASE-DUNN, Christopher / HALL, Thomas D.: “Comparing World-Systems: Concepts and Working Hypotheses”, Social Forces, 1993, Volume 71, Number 4, pp. 851-886.
• COBBING, Julian: “The Mfecane as Alibi: Thoughts on Dithakong and Mbolompo”, Journal of African History, 1988, Volume 29, Number 3, pp. 487-519.
• COHEN, Ronald: “Introduction”, (Ed.) COHEN, Ronald / SERVICE, Elman R.: Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Philadelphia, 1978, pp. 1-20. (Introduction)
• COHEN, Ronald: “The state: a lenticular perspective”, Political and Legal Anthropology Review, 1993, Volume 16, Number 1, pp. 1-7 (The State)
• COHEN, Ronald: “Warfare and state formation: wars make states and states make war”, (Ed.) FERGUSON, R. Brian: Warfare, Culture, and Environment, Academic Press, New York, 1984, pp. 329-358 (Warfare)
• DENIS, Claude: “The genesis of American capitalism: an historical inquiry into state theory” Journal of Historical Sociology, 1989, Volume 2, Issue 4, pp. 328-356.
• ELDREDGE, Elizabeth A.: “Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, c. 1800-30: The ‘Mfecane’ Reconsidered”, Journal of African History, 1992, Volume 33, Number 1, pp. 1-35.
• FERGUSON, R. Brian: “Explaining war”, (Ed.) HAAS, Jonathan: The Anthropology of War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 26-55.
• FLANNERY, Kent V.: “The Cultural Evolution of Civilization”, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1972, Volume 3, pp. 399-426.
• FORTES, Meyer / EVANS-PRITCHARD, Edward E.: “Introduction”, (Ed.) FORTES, Meyer / EVANS-PRITCHARD, Edward E.: African Political Systems, Oxford University Press, London, 1940, pp. 1-23.
• FRIED, Morton H: “The state, the chicken, and the egg; or what came first?”, (Ed.) COHEN, Ronald / SERVICE, Elman R.: Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Philadelphia, 1978, pp. 35-47.
• GLUCKMAN, Max: “The Individual in a Social Framework: The Rise of King Shaka of Zululand”, Journal of African Studies, 1974, Volume 1, Issue 2, pp. 113-144 (The Individual).
• GLUCKMAN, Max: “The kingdom of the Zulu of South Africa”, (Ed.) FORTES, Meyer / EVANS-PRITCHARD, Edward E.: African Political Systems, Oxford University Press, London, 1940, pp. 25-55 (The Kingdom).
• GLUCKMAN, Max: “The rise of a Zulu empire”, Scientific American, 1960, Volume 202, Number 4, pp. 157-168 (The Rise).
• GLUCKMAN, Max: Analysis of a Social Situation in Modern Zululand, Rhodes-Livingstone Papers, Number 28, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1958 (Analysis).
• GOLAN, Dafnah: Inventing Shaka: Using History in the Construction of Zulu Nationalism, L. Rienner, Boulder, 1994.
• GRABER, Robert B. / ROSCOE Paul: “Introduction: Circumscription and the evolution of society”, American Behavioral Scientist, 1988, Volume 31, Number 4, pp. 405-415.
• GUMP, James: “Ecological Change and Pre-Shakan State Formation”, African Economic History, 1989, Number 18, pp. 57-71 (Ecological).
• GUMP, James: “Origins of the Zulu kingdom”, The Historian, 1988, Volume 50, Number 4, pp. 521-534 (Origins).
• GUMP, James: The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1994 (The Dust).
• GUY, Jeff J.: “Review of Terror and Resistance by E.V. Walter”, African Affairs, 1971, Volume 70, Issue 281, pp. 414-415 (Review).
• GUY, Jeff J: “Ecological factors in the rise of Shaka and the Zulu kingdom”, (Ed.) MARKS, Shula / ATMORE, Anthony: Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa, Longman, London, 1980, pp. 102-119 (Ecological).
• GUY, Jeff J: The Destruction of the Zulu Kingdom: The Civil War in Zululand, 1879-1884, Longman, London, 1979. (The Destruction)
• HAAS, Jonathan: The Evolution of the Prehistoric State, Columbia University Press, New York, 1982. (The Evolution)
• HAMILTON, Carolyn A.: “‘The character and objects of Chaka’: a reconsideration of the making of Shaka as ‘Mfecane’ motor”, Journal of African History, 1992, Volume 33, Number 1, pp. 37-63 (The Character).
• HAMILTON, Carolyn A.: Terrific Majesty: The Powers of Shaka Zulu and the Limits of Historical Invention, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1998, (Terrific).
• HARNER, Michael J.: “Population pressure and the social evolution of agriculturalists” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 1970, Volume 26, Number 1, pp. 67-86.
• KEELEY, Lawrence H.: “Hunter-gatherer economic complexity and ‘population pressure’: A cross-cultural analysis”, Journal of Anthropological Archeology, 1988, Volume 7, Issue 4, pp. 373-411.
• KIPP, Rita Smith / SCHORTMAN Edward M.: “The political impact of trade in chiefdoms” American Anthropologist, 1989, Volume 91, Number 2, pp. 370-385.
• KNAUFT, Bruce: “Warfare, Western Intrusion and ecology in Melanesia [Comment]”, Man, 1992, Volume 27, Number 2, pp. 399-401.
• KUNENE, Mazisi: “Shaka the Great: warrior-king and founder of the Zulu nation”, Journal of African Civilizations, 1987, Volume 9, pp. 251-281.
• LABAND, John: Kingdom in crisis: The Zulu response to the British Invasion of 1879, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1992.
• LEWELLEN, Ted C.: Political Anthropology: An Introduction South Hadley, Bergin & Garvey, Massachusetts, 1983.
• LEWY, Ernst: “Historical charismatic leaders and mythical heroes” Journal of Psychohistory, 1979, Volume 3, Number 6, pp. 377-392.
• MACMILLAN, Hugh: “Return to the Malungwana Drift - Max Gluckman, the Zulu Nation and the Common Society”, African Affairs, 1995, Volume 94, pp. 39-65.
• MORRIS, Donald R.: The Washing of the Spears: A History of the Rise of the Zulu Nation under Shaka and Its Fall in the Zulu War of 1879, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1965.
• OMER-COOPER, John D.: “Has the Mfecane a future? A response to the Cobbing critique” Journal of Southern African Studies, 1993, Volume 19, Issue 2, pp. 273-294.
• OTTERBEIN, Keith F.: “The evolution of Zulu warfare”, (Ed.) BOHANNAN, Paul: Law and Warfare: Studies in the Anthropology of Conflict, Natural History Press, Garden City, New York, 1967, pp. 351-357.
• PASTORE, Mario: “Taxation, Coercion, Trade and Development in a Frontier Economy: Early and Mid Colonial Paraguay”, Journal of Latin American Studies, 1997, Volume 29, Number 2, pp. 329-354.
• PEIRES, Jeffrey B.: “Introduction”, (Ed.) PEIRES, Jeffrey B.: Before and After Shaka: Papers in Nguni History, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 1981, pp. 9-10 (Introduction).
• PEIRES, Jeffrey B.: “Paradigm Deleted: The Materialist Interpretation of the Mfecane”, Journal of Southern African Studies, 1993, Volume 19, Number 2, pp. 295-313 (Paradigm).
• PEOPLES, James G.: “Political Evolution in Micronesia”, Ethnology, 1993, Volume 32, Number 1, pp. 1-17. (Political)
• RITTER, E.A.: Shaka Zulu: The Rise of the Zulu Empire, Longmans Green and Co., London, 1955. (Shaka)
• ROMM, Stuart: “Political conflict, role differentiation and state formation: a case study of the Zulus”, Social Science Information, 1986, Volume 25, Number 3, pp. 607-645. (Political)
• ROSCOE, Paul B. “Practice and Political Centralisation: A new approach to political evolution”, Current Anthropology, 1993, Volume 34, Number 2, pp. 111-140 (Practice).
• ROSCOE, Paul B.: “Warfare, Terrain, and Political Expansion”, Human Ecology, 1992, Volume 20, Number 1, pp. 1-20, (Warfare).
• ROSCOE, Paul: “From Big-Men to the State: A Processual Approach to Circumscription Theory”, American Behavioral Scientist, 1988, Volume 31, Number 4, pp. 472-483 (From Big-Men).
• SAHLINS, Marshall: “Other Times, Other Customs: The Anthropology of History”, American Anthropologist, 1983, Volume 85, Number 3, pp. 517-544.
• SCHACHT, Robert M.: “Circumscription theory: a critical review”, American Behavioral Scientist, 1988, Volume 4, Number 31, s.438-448.
• SERVICE, Elman R.: “Classical and modern theories of the origins of government”, (Ed.) COHEN, Ronald / SERVICE, Elman R.: Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Philadelphia, 1978, pp. 21-34 (Classical).
• SERVICE, Elman R.: Origins of the State and Civilization: The Process of Cultural Evolution, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 1975 (Origins).
• SHANKMAN, Paul: “Culture Contact, Cultural Ecology, and Dani Warfare” Man, 1991, Volume 26, Number 2, pp. 299-321.
• SOUTHALL, Aidan: “State formation in Africa”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 1974, Volume 3, pp. 153-165.
• SPENCER, Herbert: The Principles of Sociology, Volume II-I, D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1896.
• STARK, Frank M.: “Theories of Contemporary State Formation in Africa: A Reassessment”, Journal of Modern African Studies, 1986, Volume 14, Issue 2, pp. 335-347.
• STEVENSON, Robert F.: Population and Political Systems in Tropical Africa, Columbia University Press, New York, 1968.
• THOMPSON, Leonard: “Co-operation and conflict: the Zulu kingdom and Natal”, (Ed.) WILSON, Monica / THOMPSON, Leonard M.: The Oxford History of South Africa, Oxford University Press, New York 1969, pp. 334-390.
• UZOIGWE, G.N.: “The Warrior and the State in Precolonial Africa”, Journal of Asian and African Studies, 1977, Volume 12, pp. 20-47.
• VENGROFF, Richard: “Population density and state formation in Africa”, African Studies Review, 1976, Volume 19, Number 1, pp. 67-74.
• WALTER, Eugene V.: Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, Oxford University Press, New York, 1969.
• WEBER, Max: “Political communities”, (Ed.) RHEINSTEIN, Max: Max Weber on Law in Economy and Society, Harvard University Press, New York, 1954, pp. 338-348 (Political).
• WEBER, Max: “Politics as a vocation”, (Ed.) GERTH, Hans Heinrich / MILLS, Charles Wright: From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, Oxford University Press, New York, 1958, pp. 77-128 (Politics).
• WRIGHT, Henry T.: “Recent Research on the Origin of the State”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 1977, Volume 6, pp. 379-397 (Recent).
• WRIGHT, John: “A.T. Bryant and ‘The Wars of Shaka’”, History in Africa, 1991, Volume 18, pp. 409-425 (A.T. Bryant).