Small State Theory and China in Latvia’s Foreign Policy

Öz

While relations between Latvia and China have developed rapidly in recent years and cooperation in various fields has become closer, the two countries have also faced certain difficulties. Bilateral relations have not progressed as expected, particularly following the establishment of the China-Central and Eastern Europe Cooperation Mechanism (CEEC). Although this initiative was beneficial in strengthening economic ties, it has hindered Latvia from adopting a more accommodating stance toward China politically. There are several reasons for this lack of progress. Since the US-China rivalry directly influences Latvia's foreign policy, the country seeks to bolster transatlantic cooperation to its advantage. In this context, the small Baltic state of Latvia's alliance with the US and the EU as a counterbalance to China becomes the focal point of this study. This paper first examines the small state theory to provide a clearer understanding of Latvia's position as a small state. It then analyzes the development of bilateral relations between Latvia and China since the establishment of their diplomatic ties. In conclusion, the paper discusses the obstacles hindering the growth of bilateral relations as identified by both China and Latvia.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• China
• Latvia
• China-Central and Eastern Europe Cooperation Mechanism
• Small State

Küçük Devlet Teorisi̇ ve Letonya Dış Politikasında Çı̇n

Öz

Letonya ve Çin arasındaki ilişkiler son yıllarda hızla gelişirken ve çeşitli alanlarda iş birliği yakınlaşırken, iki ülke bazı zorluklarla da karşılaşmıştır. Özellikle Çin-Orta ve Doğu Avrupa İş birliği Mekanizması'nın (CEEC) kurulmasının ardından ikili ilişkiler beklendiği gibi ilerlememiştir. Bu girişim ekonomik bağların güçlendirilmesi açısından faydalı olsa da Letonya'nın siyasi olarak Çin'e karşı daha uzlaşmacı bir tutum benimsemesini engellemiştir. Bu ilerleme eksikliğinin birkaç nedeni vardır. ABD-Çin rekabeti Letonya'nın dış politikasını doğrudan etkilediğinden, transatlantik iş birliğini kendi yararına olacak şekilde güçlendirmeye çalışmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, küçük Baltık devleti Letonya'nın Çin'e karşı bir denge unsuru olarak ABD ve AB ile ittifakı bu çalışmanın odak noktası haline gelmektedir. Bu makale ilk olarak Letonya'nın küçük bir devlet olarak konumunun daha net anlaşılmasını sağlamak için küçük devlet teorisini incelemektedir. Daha sonra Letonya ve Çin arasındaki diplomatik ilişkilerin kurulmasından bu yana ikili ilişkilerin gelişimi analiz edilmektedir. Sonuç olarak, makale hem Çin hem de Letonya tarafından tanımlanan ikili ilişkilerin ilerlemesinin önündeki engelleri tartışmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Çin
• Letonya
• Çin-Orta ve Doğu Avrupa İşbirliği Mekanizması
• Küçük Devlet

Kaynakça

1. Ārlietu Ministrija, (2014). Annual Report by the Minister of Foreign Affairs on accomplishments and activities planned with respect to national foreign policy and the European Union, https://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/media/2226/download
2. Ārlietu Ministrija, (2018). Annual Report of the Minister of Foreign Affairs on the accomplishments and further work with respect to national foreign policy and the European Union 2018, https://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/media/2223/download
3. Banka, A. (2022). Neither Reckless Nor Free‐Riders: Auditing the Baltics as US Treaty allies, Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 20, 161-183
4. Bindi, F. (2019). Europe and America: The End of the Transatlantic Relationship?, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
5. Cerulus, L. et al.. (2023). Europe wants to upgrade its Huawei plan, https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-plots-huawei-plan-upgrade/
6. Cheng, C. (2023). Is the EU Finally Headed Towards a Ban on Huawei? https://chinaobservers.eu/is-the-eu-finally-headed-towards-a-ban-on-huawei/
7. Crowards, T. (2002). Defining the Category of Small States. Journal of International Development, 14(2), 143-79.
8. East, M. A. (1973). Size and Foreign Policy Behaviour: A Test of Two Models. World Politics. 25(4), 556-576.

9. Elman, M. F. (1995). The Foreign Policies of Small States: Challenging Neorealism in Its Own Backyard. British Journal of Political Science, 25 (2), 171–217.
10. European Commission (2024). Questions and Answers: EU Strategy for Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_21_4709
11. European Union (2004). Latvia formally joined the EU on May 1, 2004, having complied with the requirements of the Copenhagen Treaty for membership, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/MT/legal-content/summary/partnership-for-the-accession-of-latvia.html?fromSummary=16
12. FoodUnion (2016). Food Union Launches Export of Dairy Products to China, https://foodunion.com/food-union-launches-export-of-dairy-products-to-china/
13. Galal, A. M. (2020). External Behavior of Small States in Light of Theories of International Relations, Review of Economics and Political Science 5(1), 2020: 38-56.
14. Handel, M. (1990). Weak States in the International System, London: Frank Cass and Co
15. Hey, J. (2003). Small States in World Politics. London: Lynne Rienner.
16. Hsiung, C. and Roseth, T. (2019). The Artic Dimension in Sino-Russian Relations, Sino-Russian Relations in the 21st century, Bekkevold, J and Lo, B. (Eds.), (pp.167-190), Palgrave Macmillan.
17. Hynek, N.vd. (2009). “The US-Russian Security ‘Reset’: Implications for Central-Eastern Europe and Germany,” European Security, 18(3), 263-285.
18. Hu, Y. and Wang, Q. (2016). Latvia to join China’s Belt and Road Initiative, http://english.www.gov.cn/premier/news/2016/11/05/content_281475483362451.htm
19. IMF Country Report (2023). Republic Of Latvia, https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/CR/2023/English/1LVAEA2023001.ashx
20. Jordaan, E. (2003). ‘The Concept of a Middle power in International Relations: Distinguishing Between Emerging and Traditional Middle Powers’, Politikon, 30(1), 165–181.
21. Kai, H. and Huiyin, F. (2023). International Order Transition and US-China Strategic Competition in the Indo Pacific, Kai H. and Huiyin F. (Eds.), Navigating International Order Transition in the Indo-Pacific, (pp.234-260), Taylor&Francis.
22. Kante, J. (2022). Latvia and China: Entering the Post-Optimism Period. China in the Baltic States – from a Cause of Hope to Anxiety, Andžāns, M., and Bērziņa-Čerenkova, U. A. (Eds.), (pp. 32–54), Rīga Stradinš University.
23. Kassimeris, C. (2009). “The Foreign Policy of Small Powers”, International Politics, 46(1), 84-101.
24. Keohane, R. (1969). ‘Lilliputians’ Dilemmas: Small States in International Politics’, International Organization 23(2), 291–310.
25. Kingdon, J. W. (1984). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policy, Little Brown, New York.
26. Korovkin, V. and Makarin, A. (2023). Conflict and Intergroup Trade: Evidence from the 2014 Russia-Ukraine Crisis, American Economic Review, 113(1): 34–70.
27. Kruessmann, T. (2021). The Artic as a Micro-Cosmos for Selective Engagement between the EU and Russia, Principled Pragmatism in Practice the EU’s Policy towards Russia after Crimea, F. Bossuyt and P. Elsewuge (Eds.), (pp.290-312), Brill Nijhoff .
28. Latvijas Republikas Saeima, (2018). Ināra Mūrniece meets with Chinese President Xi Jinping, https://www.saeima.lv/en/news/saeima-news/26491-inara-murniece-meets-with-chinese-president-xi-jinping
29. Lindstaedt, N. (2024). Ukraine War: Russia’s Baltic Neighbours to Create Massive Border Defences as Trump Continues Undermining NATO, https://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-russias-baltic-neighbours-to-create-massive-border-defences-as-trump-continues-undermining-nato-225944
30. Maas, M. (2009). ‘The Elusive Definition of The Small State’, International Politics 46(1), 65–83.
31. McLean, D. (1985). Vulnerability: Small States in the Global Society, London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
32. Mitchel, W. (2018). “Winning the Competition for Influence in Central and Eastern Europe,” https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/transcript/winning-the-competition-for-influence-in-central-and-eastern-europe-us-assistant-secretary-of-state-a-wess-mitchell/
33. Republic of Latvia Constitution Protection Bureau, (2023). 2023 Annual Report, https://sab.gov.lv/files/uploads/2024/02/SAB-2023.gada-parskats_ENG.pdf
34. Rode, N. (2022). Lātuōwéiyǎ yǔ zhōngguó guānxì yánjiū (1991–2019): Duōbiān shì yù xià de shuāngbiān guānxì (A Study on Relations between Latvia and China (1991-2019): Bilateral Relations from a Multilateral Perspective), Shang Quanyu, Peteris Pildegovics (Ed.), Lātuōwéiyǎ shì yù xià de lātuōwéiyǎ yǔ zhōngguó yánjiū (Latvian and Chinese Studies from a Latvian Perspective), (p.7-77), Riga: University of Latvia Press,
35. Scherrer, A. and Thirion, E. (2018). Citizenship by Investment (CBI) and Residency by Investment (RBI) Schemes in the EU, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/155728/EPRS_STUD_627128_Citizenship%20by%20Investment%20_FINAL.pdf
36. Steinmetz, R. and Anders W. (2010). Small States in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities. New York: Ashgate.
37. Song, C. (2009). Jiànguó Chūqí Zhōng Sū Nóngyè Kēxué Jìshù Hézuò Yánjiū (Research on Sino-Soviet agricultural science and technology cooperation in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China), Zhōngguó sānxiá chūbǎn shè (China Three Gorges Publishing House).
38. Soroka, G. and Stepniewski, T. (2019). ‘The Three Seas Initiative: Geopolitical Determinants and Polish Interests’, Yearbook of the Institute of East-Central Europe, 17(3), 15-29.
39. Soobramanien, T. and Gosset, L. (2015). Small States in the Multilateral Trading System: An Overview, T. Soobramanien and L.Gosset (Eds.), (pp.3-22), Commonwealth Secretariat.
40. Stankevicius, A. (2022). Latvia, Estonia withdraw from China cooperation group, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/latvia-estonia-withdraw-china-cooperation-group-2022-08-11/
41. Struberga, S. (2020). The Unknown Other? Perceptions of China in Latvia, https://chinaobservers.eu/the-unknown-other-perceptions-of-china-in-latvia/
42. Thorhallsson, B. (2006), The Size of States in the European Union: Theoretical and Conceptual Perspectives, Journal of European Integration, 28(1), 7-31.
43. Thorhallsson, B. (2018). Studying Small States: A Review, Small States & Territories, 1(1), 17-34.
44. Trademap (2024). Bilateral trade between China and Latvia, https://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx
45. Trading Economics, (2024). Latvia Imports By Country, https://tradingeconomics.com/latvia/imports-by-country.
46. Tubilewicz, C. (2002). The Baltic States in Taiwan’s Post-Cold War ‘Flexible Diplomacy’, Europe-Asia Studies 54(5), 791-810.
47. Tubilewicz, C. (2007). Taiwan and Post-Communist Europe: Shopping for Allies, Routledge.
48. Tzogopoulos, G.N. (2021). The Miracle of China: The New Symbiosis with the World, Springer.
49. US Department of State (2020). Joint Statement on United States-Latvia Joint Declaration on 5G Security, https://2017-2021.state.gov/joint-statement-on-united-states-latvia-joint-declaration-on-5g-security/
50. Vital, D. (1967). The Inequality of States: A Study of the Small Power in International Relations Oxford: Clarendon.
51. Vitkus, G. (2019) Trilemmas of recognition in the Baltic states’ Foreign Policies’, Journal of Baltic Studies, 50(3), 307-326.
52. Vohra, A. (2024). Latvia Is Going on Offense Against Russian Culture, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/21/latvia-is-going-on-offense-against-russian-culture/
53. Wéi, M. (2014). Xiǎoguó yǔ guójì guānxì (Small States and International Relations), Běijīng dàxué chūbǎn Peking University Press.
54. Winnerstig, M. (2014). Tools of Destabilization Russian Soft Power and Non-Military Influence in the Baltic States, FOI
55. Zasiadko, M. (2018). Latvia launches new rail freight link to China, https://www.railfreight.com/intermodal/2018/11/20/latvia-launches-new-rail-freight-link-to-china/?gdpr=accept
56. Zhao, M. (2022). É Wū Chōngtú Duì Zhōng Měi Guānxì De Yǐngxiǎng Lùn Xī (Analysis of the Impact of the Russia-Ukraine Conflict on China-US Relations), Hépíng yǔ fāzhǎn (Peace and Development), 3,1-22.