Antropojenik Faaliyetler Nedeniyle Değişen Çevrenin Yarasalar Üzerine Etkileri

Yıl 2020, , 1449 - 1459, 26.09.2020

Atilla Arslan , Mesut Baş

https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.689189

Öz

Ekosistemin en önemli dinamiklerinden olan yarasalar, birçok bulaşıcı hastalığın kaynağını oluşturan ve ayrıca tarım için zararlı etkileri olan böcek populasyonunun kontrolünü sağlar. Günümüzde küresel ekosistemin insanlar tarafından değiştirilmesi nedeniyle birçok bilim adamının hemfikir olduğu yeni bir jeolojik çağın -Antroposen Çağı- başlangıcı tetiklenmektedir. Birçok canlı antropojenik faaliyetleri tolere edip insanlarında içinde bulundukları habitatlarda hayatlarını sürdürmeye devam ederken, canlıların büyük çoğunluğu da dramatik bir şekilde popülasyonlarında düşüş yaşamaktadır. Tüm bu olanların sonucunda da gezegenimiz altıncı büyük yokoluşa doğru itilmektedir. Yarasalar, yaşam döngüleri, beslenme şekilleri, habiatatları, düşük üreme hızı ve yüksek metabolik hızları nedeniyle antropojenik değişikliklere özellikle açıktırlar. Yarasaların %16’sının IUCN tarafından Kritik Olarak Tehlikeli, Nesli Tehlikede ve Hassas konumda oldukları belirtilmiştir. Bu çalışmada antropojenik faaliyetlerin yarasalar üzerinde nasıl bir etki oluşturduğu vurgulanmıştır. Amacımız, bizim de nokturnal olmaları nedeniyle pek de farkında olmadığımız yarasalar hakkında farkındalık oluşmasını sağlamaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

ekoloji, ekosistem, korunma statüsü

Kaynakça

• 1. Voigt C.C., Kingston T. 2016. Bats in the Anthropocene: Conservation of Bats in a Changing World, Springer Science+ Business Media, USA.
• 2. Ciais P., Sabine C., Bala G., Bopp L., Brovkin V., et al. 2013. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to The Fifth Assessment Report of The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC Climate Change, 465-570.
• 3. Gray V. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Summary for Policymakers. Energy & Environment, 18 (3-4): 433-40.
• 4. Canfield D.E., Glazer A.N., Falkowski P.G. 2010. The Evolution and Future of Earth’s Nitrogen Cycle. Science, 330 (6001): 192-6.
• 5. Krausmann F., Erb K.H., Gingrich S., Haberl H., Bondeau A., et al. 2013. Global Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production Doubled in the 20th Century. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences, 110 (25): 10324-9.
• 6. Barnosky A.D., Matzke N., Tomiya S., Wogan G.O., Swartz B., et al. 2011. Has the Earth’s Sixth Mass Extinction Already Arrived. Nature, 471 (7336): 51.
• 7. Lewis S.L., Maslin M.A. 2015. Defining the Anthropocene. Nature, 519 (7542): 171-80.
• 8. Mehlhorn H. 2014. Introduction: The World of Bats. Bats (Chiroptera) as Vectors of Diseases and Parasites. Springer, 1-5.
• 9. Ducummon S.L. 2000. Ecological and Economic Importance of Bats. Bat Conservation International, Austin, TX.
• 10. Zinn T.L., Humphrey S.R. 1981. Seasonal Food Resources and Prey Selection of the Southeastern Brown Bat (Myotis Austroriparius) in Florida. Florida Scientist, 81-90.
• 11. Kunz T.H., Whitaker J., Wadanoli M. 1995. Dietary Energetics of the Insectivorous Mexican Free-Tailed Bat (Tadarida Brasiliensis) During Pregnancy and Lactation. Oecologia, 101 (4): 407-15.
• 12. Kasso M., Balakrishnan M. 2013. Ecological and Economic Importance of Bats (Order Chiroptera). ISRN Biodiversity.
• 13. Boyles J.G., Cryan P.M., McCracken G.F., Kunz T.H. 2011. Economic Importance of Bats in Agriculture. Science, 332 (6025): 41-2.
• 14. Fujita M.S., Tuttle M.D. 1991. Flying Foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae): Threatened Animals of Key Ecological and Economic Importance. Conservation Biology, 5 (4): 455-63.
• 15. Hill J., Smith J. 1984. Bats: A Natural History. Journal of Mammology, 121-2.
• 16. Buchler E. 1975. Food Transit Time in Myotis lucifugus Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae. Journal of Mammalogy, 56 (1): 252-5.
• 17. Frick W.F., Reynolds D.S., Kunz T.H. 2010. Influence of Climate and Reproductive Timing on Demography of Little Brown Myotis Myotis Lucifugus. Journal of Animal Ecology, 79 (1): 128-36.
• 18. Jones G., Jacobs D.S., Kunz T.H., Willig M.R., Racey P.A. 2009. Carpe Noctem: The Importance of Bats as Bioindicators. Endangered Species Research, 8 (1-2): 93-115.
• 19. Walker L., Simpson V., Rockett L., Wienburg C., Shore R. 2007. Heavy Metal Contamination in Bats in Britain. Environmental Pollution, 148 (2): 483-90.
• 20. Wickramasinghe L.P., Harris S., Jones G., Vaughan N. 2003. Bat Activity and Species Richness on Organic and Conventional Farms: Impact of Agricultural Intensification. Journal of Applied Ecology, 40 (6): 984-93.
• 21. Dietz C., Nill D., von Helversen O. 2009. Bats of Britain, Europe and Northwest Africa. A & C Black.
• 22. Stebbings R.E. 1988. The conservation of European bats. Christopher Helm Pub Limited.
• 23. Stone E.L., Jones G., Harris S. 2009. Street Lighting Disturbs Commuting Bats. Current Biology, 19 (13): 1123-7.
• 24. Anthony E.L., Kunz T.H. 1977. Feeding Strategies of the Little Brown Bat, Myotis lucifugus, in Southern New Hampshire. Ecology, 58 (4): 775-86.
• 25. Podlutsky A.J., Khritankov A.M., Ovodov N.D., Austad S.N. 2005. A New Field Record for Bat Longevity. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 60 (11): 1366-8.
• 26. Hickey M., Fenton M., MacDonald K., Soulliere C. 2001. Trace Elements in The Fur of Bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) From Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 66 (6): 699-706.
• 27. Allinson G., Mispagel C., Kajiwara N., Anan Y., Hashimoto J., et al. 2006. Organochlorine and Trace Metal Residues in Adult Southern Bent-Wing Bat (Miniopterus schreibersii bassanii) in Southeastern Australia. Chemosphere, 64 (9): 1464-71.
• 28. Lilley T.M., Meierjohann A., Ruokolainen L., Peltonen J., Vesterinen E., et al. 2012. Reed Beds May Facilitate Transfer of Tributyltin From Aquatic to Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Insect Vectors in The Archipelago Sea, SW Finland. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 31 (8): 1781-7.
• 29. Korine C., Adams R., Russo D., Fisher-Phelps M., Jacobs D. 2016. Bats and Water: Anthropogenic Alterations Threaten Global Bat Populations. Bats in The Anthropocene: Conservation of Bats in a Changing World. Springer, Cham, 215-41.
• 30. Pikula J., Zukal J., Adam V., Bandouchova H., Beklova M., et al. 2010. Heavy Metals and Metallothionein in Vespertilionid Bats Foraging Over Aquatic Habitats in the Czech Republic. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry: An International Journal, 29 (3): 501-6.
• 31. Park K.J., Müller C.T., Markman S., Swinscow-Hall O., Pascoe D., et al. 2009. Detection of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Aerial Invertebrates at Sewage Treatment Works. Chemosphere, 77 (11): 1459-64.
• 32. Clark Jr.D., Hothem R.L. 1991. Mammal Mortality at Arizona, California, and Nevada Gold Mines Using Cyanide Extraction. California Fish and Game, 77 (2): 61-9.
• 33. Petit M.G., Altenbach J.S. 1973. A Chronological Record of Environmental Chemicals From Analysis of Stratified Vertebrate Excretion Deposited in a Sheltered Environment. Environmental Research, 6 (3): 339-43.
• 34. Forman R.T., Sperling D., Bissonette J.A., Clevenger A.P., Cutshall C.D., et al. 2003. Road ecology: science and solutions, Island Press.
• 35. Berthinussen A., Altringham J. 2012. The Effect of a Major Road on Bat Activity and Diversity. Journal of Applied Ecology, 49 (1): 82-9.
• 36. Altringham J, Kerth G. Bats and roads. In: Voigt CCV & Kingston T (eds.) Bats in the Anthropocene: Conservation of Bats in a Changing World: Springer Science+ Business Media; 2016.
• 37. Kerth G., Melber M. 2009. Species-Specific Barrier Effects of a Motorway on the Habitat Use of Two Threatened Forest-Living Bat Species. Biological Conservation, 142 (2): 270-9.
• 38. Lesiński G. 2007. Bat Road Casualties and Factors Determining Their Number. Mammalia, 71 (3): 138-42.
• 39. Medinas D., Marques J.T., Mira A. 2013. Assessing Road Effects on Bats: The Role of Landscape, Road Features, and Bat Activity on Road‐Kills. Ecological Research, 28 (2): 227-37.
• 40. Russell A.L., Butchkoski C.M., Saidak L., McCracken G.F. 2009. Road-Killed Bats, Highway Design, and the Commuting Ecology of Bats. Endangered Species Research, 8 (1-2): 49-60.
• 41. Berthinussen A., Altringham J. 2012. Do Bat Gantries and Underpasses Help Bats Cross Roads Safely. PloS One, 7 (6): e38775.
• 42. Blake D., Hutson A., Racey P., Rydell J., Speakman J. 1994. Use of Lamplit Roads by Foraging Bats in Southern England. Journal of Zoology, 234 (3): 453-62. 43. Rydell J. 1992. Exploitation of Insects Around Streetlamps by Bats in Sweden. Functional Ecology, 744-50.
• 44. Rowse E., Lewanzik D., Stone E., Harris S., Jones G. 2016. Dark Matters: The Effects of Artificial Lighting on Bats. Bats in the Anthropocene: Conservation of Bats in a Changing World. Springer, Cham, 187-213.
• 45. Longcore T., Rich C. 2004. Ecological Light Pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2 (4): 191-8.
• 46. Frey J. 1993. Nocturnal Foraging by Scissor-Tailed Flycatchers under Artificial Light. Western Birds, 24 (3): 200.
• 47. Arlettaz R., Godat S., Meyer H. 2000. Competition for Food by Expanding Pipistrelle Bat Populations (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) Might Contribute to the Decline of Lesser Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus hipposideros). Biological Conservation, 93 (1): 55-60.
• 48. Siemers B.M., Schaub A. 2010. Hunting at the Highway: Traffic Noise Reduces Foraging Efficiency in Acoustic Predators. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278 (1712): 1646-52.
• 49. Bennett V.J., Zurcher A.A. 2013. When Corridors Collide: Road‐Related Disturbance in Commuting Bats. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 77 (1): 93-101.
• 50. Fenton M.B. 1997. Science and the Conservation of Bats. Journal of Mammalogy, 78 (1): 1-14.
• 51. Ferrara F.J., Leberg P.L. 2005. Influence of Investigator Disturbance and Temporal Variation on Surveys of Bats Roosting under Bridges. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 33 (3): 1113-22.
• 52. Humphrey S.R., Kunz T.H. 1976. Ecology of a Pleistocene Relict, the Western Big-Eared Rat (Plecotus townsendii), in the Southern Great Plains. Journal of Mammalogy, 57 (3): 470-94.
• 53. Pearson O.P., Koford M.R., Pearson A.K. 1952. Reproduction of the Lump-Nosed Bat (Corynorhinus rafinesquei) in California. Journal of Mammalogy, 33 (3): 273-320.
• 54. Mann S.L., Steidl R.J., Dalton V.M. 2002. Effects of Cave Tours on Breeding Myotis velifer. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 618-24.
• 55. Shirley M., Armitage V., Barden T., Gough M., Lurz P., et al. 2001. Assessing the Impact of a Music Festival on the Emergence Behaviour of a Breeding Colony of Daubenton's Bats (Myotis daubentonii). Journal of Zoology, 254 (3): 367-73.
• 56. Johnson S.A., Brack V., Rolley R.E. 1998. Overwinter Weight Loss of Indiana Bats (Myotis sodalis) From Hibernacula Subject to Human Visitation. The American Midland Naturalist, 139 (2): 255-62.
• 57. Speakman J., Webb P., Racey P. 1991. Effects of Disturbance on the Energy Expenditure of Hibernating Bats. Journal of Applied Ecology, 1087-104.
• 58. Bernstein M., Griffin J., Lempert R. 2006. Impacts on energy expenditures of use. Technical Report Prepared for the Energy Future Coalition, RAND Corporation.
• 59. Arnett E.B., Baerwald E.F., Mathews F., Rodrigues L., Rodríguez-Durán A., et al. 2016. Impacts of Wind Energy Development on Bats: A Global Perspective. Bats in the Anthropocene: Conservation of Bats in a Changing World. Springer, Cham, 295-323.
• 60. Arnett E.B. 2012. Impacts of Wind Energy Development on Wildlife: Challenges and Opportunities for Integrating Science, Management, and Policy. Wildlife Science, CRC Press, 232-57.
• 61. Arnett E., Inkley D., Johnson D., Larkin R., Manes S., et al. 2007. Impacts of Wind Energy Facilities on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat. Wildlife Society Technical Review, 7 (2): 49.
• 62. Strickland M., Arnett E., Erickson W., Johnson D., Johnson G., et al. 2011. Comprehensive Guide to Studying Wind Energy/Wildlife Interactions. Prepared for the National Wind Coordinating Collaborative, Washington, DC, USA, 5: 315-24.
• 63. Yorulmaz T. 2017. Rüzgar Enerji Santrali ve Yarasalar, http://www.tarkan-yorulmaz.com.tr/dosyalar/2, (Erişim Tarihi: 23.12.2019).
• 64. Arnett E.B., Erickson P.W., Kerns J., Horn J. 2005. Relationships between Bats and Wind Turbines in Pennsylvania and West Virginia: An Assessment of Fatality Search Protocols, Patterns of Fatality, and Behaviral Interactions with Wind Turbines.
• 65. Erickson W., Kronner K., Gritski B. 2003. Nine Canyon Wind Power Project Avian and Bat Monitoring Report.
• 66. Ferri V., Locasciulli O., Soccini C., Forlizzi E. 2010. Post Construction Monitoring of Wind Farms: First Records of Direct Impact on Bats in Italy. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy, 22 (1).
• 67. Arnett E.B., Schirmacher M., Huso M.M., Hayes J.P. 2009. Effectiveness of Changing Wind Turbine Cut-in Speed to Reduce Bat Fatalities at Wind Facilities. An Annual Report Submitted to the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative Bat Conservation International Austin, Texas.
• 68. Cole S.G. 2011. Wind Power Compensation is not for the Birds: An Opinion From an Environmental Economist. Restoration Ecology, 19 (2): 147-53.
• 69. Kerns J., Kerlinger P. 2004. A Study of Bird and Bat Collision Fatalities at the Mountaineer Wind Energy Center, Tucker County, West Virginia, Annual report for 2003. Prepared for FPL Energy and Mountaineer Wind Energy Center Technical Review Committee.
• 70. Baerwald E.F., D'Amours G.H., Klug B.J., Barclay R.M. 2008. Barotrauma is a Significant Cause of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines. Current biology, 18 (16): R695-R6.
• 71. Furey N.M., Mackie I.J., Racey P.A. 2011. Reproductive Phenology of Bat Assemblages in Vietnamese Karst and its Conservation Implications. Acta Chiropterologica, 13 (2): 341-54.
• 72. Gillieson D. 2009. Caves: processes, development and management, John Wiley & Sons.
• 73. Luo J., Jiang T., Lu G., Wang L., Wang J., et al. 2013. Bat Conservation in China: Should Protection of Subterranean Habitats be a Priority. Oryx, 47 (4): 526-31.
• 74. Zhang L., Zhu G., Jones G., Zhang S. 2009. Conservation of Bats in China: Problems and Recommendations. Oryx, 43(2): 179-82.
• 75. Mohr C.E. 1972. The Status of Threatened Species of Cave-Dwelling Bats. Bulletin of the National Speleological Society, 34 (2): 33-47.
• 76. Paksuz S., Özkan B. 2012. The Protection of the Bat Community in the Dupnisa Cave System, Turkey, Following Opening for Tourism. Oryx, 46 (1): 130-6.
• 77. Furman A., Özgül A. 2004. The Distribution of Cave-Dwelling Bats and Conservation Status of Underground Habitats in Northwestern Turkey. Biological Conservation, 120 (2): 243-8.
• 78. Furman A., Çoraman E., Bilgin R. 2012. Bats and Tourism: A Response to Paksuz & Özkan, Oryx, 46 (3): 330.
• 79. Yorulmaz T. 2010. Güneydoğu Türkiye Yarasaları. Kırıkkale Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi.
• 80. Deharveng L., Bedos A. 2012. Diversity Patterns in theTropics. Encyclopedia of Caves: Elsevier, 238-50.
• 81. Racey P.A., Entwistle A.C. 2000. Life-history and Reproductive Strategies of Bats. Reproductive biology of bats: Elsevier, 363-414.
• 82. McCracken G.F. 2011. Cave Conservation: Special Problems of Bats. Course Booklet, 68.
• 83. Arslan A., Baş M. 2020. Yarasa Gübresi (Guano). Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi (in press).
• 84. Jung K., Kalko E.K. 2011. Adaptability and Vulnerability of High Flying Neotropical Aerial Insectivorous Bats to Urbanization. Diversity and Distributions, 17 (2): 262-74.
• 85. Van der Ree R., McCarthy M.A., 2005. Inferring Persistence of Indigenous Mammals in Response to Urbanisation. Animal Conservation Forum, Cambridge University Press.
• 86. Gaisler J., Zukal J., Rehak Z., Homolka M. 1998. Habitat Preference and Flight Activity of Bats in a City. Journal of Zoology, 244 (3): 439-45.
• 87. Kurta A., Teramino J.A. 1992. Bat Community Structure in an Urban Park. Ecography, 15 (3): 257-61.
• 88. Legakis A., Papadimitriou C., Gaethlich M., Lazaris D. 2000. Survey of the Bats of the Athens Metropolitan Area. Myotis, 38: 41-6.
• 89. Lesinski G., Fuszara E., Kowalski M. 2000. Foraging Areas and Relative Density of Bats (Chiroptera) in Differently Human Transformed Landscapes. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde, 65 (3): 129-37.
• 90. Walsh A.L., Harris S. 1996. Factors Determining the Abundance of Vespertilionid Bats in Britain: Geographical, Land Class and Local Habitat Relationships. Journal of Applied Ecology, 519-29.
• 91. McKinney M.L. 2002. Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation: The Impacts Of Urbanization on Native Species are Poorly Studied, But Educating a Highly Urbanized Human Population About These Impacts can Greatly Improve Species Conservation in all Ecosystems. Bioscience, 52 (10): 883-90.
• 92. Coleman J.L., Barclay R.M. 2011. Influence of Urbanization on Demography of Little Brown Bats (Myotis lucifugus) in the Prairies of North America. PLoS One. 6 (5): e20483.
• 93. Duchamp J.E., Swihart R.K. 2008. Shifts in Bat Community Structure Related to Evolved Traits and Features of Human-Altered Landscapes. Landscape Ecology, 23 (7): 849-60.
• 94. Jung K., Threlfall C.G. 2016. Urbanisation and its Effects on Bats—A Global Meta-Analysis. Bats in the Anthropocene: Conservation of Bats in a Changing World. Springer, Cham, 13-33.
• 95. Lumsden L. 2009. The Extinction of the Christmas Island Pipistrelle. Australian Bat Society Newsletter, 33: 21-5.
• 96. Martin T.G., Nally S., Burbidge A.A., Arnall S., Garnett S.T., et al. 2012. Acting Fast Helps Avoid Extinction. Conservation Letters, 5 (4): 274-80.
• 97. IUCN. 2019. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019-3, https://www.iucnredlist.org/ (Erişim Tarihi: 24.12.2019).