Kimliğe Saldırı: Kültürel Miras Kaçakçılığının İnsanlığa Karşı Suç Olarak Tanınması Gerekliliği

Öz

Bu makale, kültürel mirasın sistematik yağmalanması ve yasa dışı ticaretinin, ikincil zararlar ya da fırsatçı suçlar olmadığını; aksine kolektif hafızaya, kimliğe ve insan onuruna yönelik kasıtlı saldırılar olduğunu ileri sürmektedir. Bu tür zararlar hem savaş hem de barış dönemlerinde meydana gelebilmekte ve çoğu zaman maddi kayıpların ötesine geçerek psikolojik, toplumsal, ekonomik ve siyasi düzeyde geniş kapsamlı tahribatlara yol açmaktadır. Uluslararası hukuk, günümüzde silahlı çatışmalar sırasında kültürel mirasa yönelik görece güçlü ve cezai nitelikte koruma sağlarken, barış zamanına ilişkin hukuki çerçeveler (özellikle 1970 tarihli UNESCO Sözleşmesi ile 1995 tarihli UNIDROIT Sözleşmesi) büyük ölçüde telafi edici ve iş birliğine dayalı bir yapıya sahip olup, cezai sorumluluktan ziyade kültür varlıklarının iadesine odaklanmaktadır. Uygulamadaki bu boşluk müzeler, müzayede evleri ve özel koleksiyoncular da dâhil olmak üzere uluslararası kaçakçılık ağlarının ve bunlarla iş birliği yapan piyasa aktörlerinin fiilen cezasızlık içinde faaliyet göstermesine olanak tanımaktadır. Makale, Uluslararası Ceza Mahkemesi Savcılık Ofisinin Kültürel Miras Politikası da dâhil olmak üzere uluslararası ceza hukuku içtihadı ve politikasındaki güncel gelişmelerden yola çıkarak, büyük ölçekli ve örgütlü kültür varlığı kaçakçılığının, Roma Statüsü'nün 7(1)(k) maddesinde öngörülen ağır, yaygın ve uzun süreli zararları rutin olarak ortaya çıkardığını savunmaktadır. Ayrıca, yasa dışı kazılar ile piyasa talebinin teşvik ettiği yağmanın arkeolojik bağlama zarar verdiğini, toplumların kuşaklar arası hafızayla olan bağını kopardığını, ruhsal ve toplumsal sağlığa ciddi zararlar verdiğini, bu zararların nitelik ve ağırlık bakımından diğer uluslararası suçlarla karşılaştırılabilir olduğunu göstermektedir. Makale, sistematik kültürel miras kaçakçılığının insanlığa karşı suçlar kapsamında "diğer insanlık dışı fiiller" olarak tanınmasının, hesap verebilirlik alanındaki önemli bir boşluğu dolduracağını ve insanlığın ortak kültürel mirasının sömürülmesinin uluslararası toplum açısından en ağır kaygı uyandıran fiillerden biri olduğunu teyit edeceğini savunmaktadır. Sonuç olarak, barış zamanında gerçekleştirilen kültürel miras kaçakçılığının insanlığa karşı suç olarak nitelendirilmesinin, kaynak ülkelerin insanlığın ortak kültürel mirasını koruyabilmeleri için kritik öneme sahip bir hukuki araç sağlayacağı savunulmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İnsanlık Dışı Fiil
• İnsanlığa Karşı Suçlar
• Barış zamanında kültür varlığı
• Kültür varlığı kaçakçılığı

Destekleyen Kurum

N/A

Etik Beyan

“Kimliğe Saldırı: Kültürel Miras Kaçakçılığının İnsanlığa Karşı Suç Olarak Tanınması Gerekliliği” başlıklı makalenin tamamen kendi özgün çalışmam olduğunu, daha önce herhangi bir yerde yayımlanmadığını ve yayımlanmak üzere başka bir dergiye gönderilmediğini beyan ederim. Makale, hukuka aykırı, iftira niteliğinde veya etik dışı herhangi bir içerik barındırmamaktadır. Kullanılan tüm kaynaklar akademik standartlara uygun biçimde belirtilmiş ve atıfta bulunulmuştur. Makale, insan denekler, kişisel veri veya etik kurul onayı gerektiren herhangi bir deney içermemektedir. Bu çalışma ile ilgili herhangi bir çıkar çatışmasının (mali ya da başka türlü) bulunmadığını onaylarım. Makalenin tüm içeriğinden şahsen sorumlu olduğumu kabul ederim. Saygılarımla, Anosh Naderi

Attacking Identity: Why Cultural Heritage Trafficking Must Be Recognized as Crime Against Humanity

Öz

This article argues that the systematic looting and illicit trafficking of cultural heritage are not ancillary harms or opportunistic crimes but deliberate assaults on collective memory, identity, and human dignity – harms that can occur in both war and peace and that routinely produce psychological, social, economic, and political injury far beyond mere pecuniary loss. While international law now provides comparatively strong, criminalized protection for cultural heritage during armed conflict, peacetime frameworks (notably the 1970 UNESCO and 1995 UNIDROIT Conventions) remain largely remedial and cooperative, focused on restitution rather than criminal accountability. This enforcement gap permits transnational trafficking networks and complicit market actors, including museums, auction houses, and private collectors, to operate with effective impunity. Drawing on recent developments in international criminal jurisprudence and policy, including the ICC Office of the Prosecutor’s Cultural Heritage Policy, the article demonstrates that large-scale, organized trafficking routinely produces the severe, widespread, and long-lasting harms contemplated by Article 7(1)(k) of the Rome Statute. It shows how illicit excavation and market-driven pillage destroy archaeological context, sever communities from intergenerational memory, and inflict serious injury to mental and social health – harms of a character and gravity comparable to other international crimes. The article proposes that recognizing systematic cultural-heritage trafficking as an ‘other inhumane act’ within the crimes against humanity framework would close a critical accountability gap and affirm that the exploitation of shared cultural heritage constitutes conduct of the gravest international concern. Ultimately, it argues that classifying peacetime trafficking as a crime against humanity would provide a crucial legal tool for source nations to safeguard humanity’s shared cultural legacy.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Illicit Trafficking of Antiquities
• Inhumane Act
• Crimes Against Humanity
• Peacetime Cultural Property

Destekleyen Kurum

N/A

Etik Beyan

I hereby declare that the article entitled “Attacking Identity: Why Cultural Heritage Trafficking Must Be Recognized as a Crime Against Humanity” is my original work and has not been published or submitted for publication elsewhere. The manuscript does not contain any unlawful, defamatory, or unethical material. All sources used have been properly acknowledged and cited in accordance with academic standards. The article does not involve human subjects, personal data, or experiments requiring ethical approval. I confirm that there are no conflicts of interest related to this submission, financial or otherwise. I accept full responsibility for the content of the manuscript. Sincerely, Anosh Naderi

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134. Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga (Judgment pursuant to article 74 of the Statute) (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber II, Case No ICC-01/04-01/07, 7 March 2014).
135. Adriaan Bos, ‘The Importance of the 1899, 1907 and 1999 Hague Conferences for the Legal Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict’ (UNESCO, Report No. 4/228, 2005).
136. Anya Eber, Theodore Leggett and Sonya Yee, ‘False Trades: Uncovering the Scale and Scope of Trafficking in Cultural Property - Knowledge Gaps and Future Directions for Research’ (UNODC, 14 October 2022).
137. Katarina C. O’Regan, ‘Transnational Crime Issues: Arts and Antiquities Trafficking’ (Congressional Research Service Report, US Congress, 1 March 2021).
138. Maria Teresa Dutli, ‘Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict’ (Report on the Meeting of Experts, ICRC, 2000).
139. Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing in the Art and Antiquities Market (FATF Report, FATF, February 2023). Office of the Prosecutor, Policy on Cultural Heritage (Issued 1 June 2021).
140. Sean D. Murphy, First Report on Crimes Against Humanity, UN Doc A/CN.4/680 (17 February 2015). Vincent Négri, ‘Legal Study on the Protection of Cultural Heritage through the Resolutions of the Security Council of the United Nations’ (Technical Report, UNESCO, 2015).
141. Zyenep Boz, Fighting the Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Property: A Toolkit for European Judiciary and Law Enforcement, UNESCO (2023).
142. Benedetta Mauro, ‘The Recovery of Cultural Property in International Law: Collaborative Settlements of Disputes’ (Master Dissertation, Luiss University, 2019).
143. Kyla Moore, ‘Collecting an Empire: Stolen Heritage of Indigenous Australians’ (Master Dissertation, Sotheby’s Institute of Art, 2023).
144. Luzia Prata Cordeiro, ‘The Protection of Cultural Property under International Criminal Law’ (Master Dissertation, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, 2017).
145. Robert Peters, ‘Complementary and Alternative Mechanisms Beyond Restitution: An Interest-Oriented Approach to Resolving International Cultural Heritage Disputes’ (PhD Thesis, European University Institute, Department of Law, 2011).
146. Conference Proceedings and Speeches
147. H.E. Jean-Michel Abimbola (Minister of Tourism, Culture and Arts of Benin), ‘Cultural Heritage and Diversity in Crisis’ (Speech, UNESCO/ World Conference on Cultural Policies, MONDIACULT 2022, 29 September 2022).