The Influence of Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) and Polyaniline Conductive Polymer Composition Ratio on Gas Detection for Different Gases

Öz

This study investigated the morphology and gas sensing performance of conductive polymer nanocomposite films prepared in a poly(vinyl alcohol) matrix from pure poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), pure polyaniline, and their blends at 30:70, 50:50 and 70:30 mass ratios. The flexible films, obtained by emulsion polymerization and solution casting, were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Structural analyses revealed strong intermolecular interactions between the polymer phases, with optimum surface homogeneity at the 50:50 ratio. In tests against carbon monoxide, ammonia and nitrogen dioxide, pure poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) films showed the fastest response and recovery times, whereas the 50:50 composite film, in which p-type/p-type heterojunction regions were activated at the interface, gave the highest voltage change (41%) toward ammonia. The results demonstrate that optimizing the composition ratio of conductive polymers is a highly effective strategy for improving sensitivity and signal quality in gas sensors.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• PEDOT
• PANI
• Conductive polymers
• Gas sensor
• Nanocomposite

Etik Beyan

Ethics committee approval was not required for this study because there was no study on animals or humans.

Teşekkür

This study was prepared as part of Faruk ÇELİK’s master’s thesis.

Kaynakça

1. Afzal, M., Agarwal, S., Elshaikh, R. H., Babker, A. M. A., Choudhary, R. K., Prabhakar, P. K., Zahir, F., & Sah, A. K. (2025). Carbon monoxide poisoning: Diagnosis, prognostic factors, treatment strategies, and future perspectives. Diagnostics, 15(5), Article 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15050581
2. Akhtar, M., Shahzadi, S., Arshad, M., Akhtar, T., & Saeed Ashraf Janjua, M. R. (2025). Metal oxide-polymer hybrid composites: A comprehensive review on synthesis and multifunctional applications. RSC Advances, 15(23), 18173–18208. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5RA01821H
3. Al-Amri, A. M. (2025). Printed sensors for environmental monitoring: Advancements, challenges, and future directions. Chemosensors, 13(8), Article 285. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13080285
4. Alavi-Borazjani, S. A., & Shafique, M. N. (2025). Chemical sensors for hazardous substances: Advances in design, materials, and applications in environmental monitoring. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 198(1), Article 33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-14838-1
5. Alemu, D., Wei, H. Y., Ho, K. C., & Chu, C. W. (2012). Highly conductive PEDOT:PSS electrode by simple film treatment with methanol for ITO-free polymer solar cells. Energy & Environmental Science, 5(11), 9662–9671. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2EE22595F
6. Aljafen, B. N., Shaikh, N., AlKhalifah, J. M., & Meo, S. A. (2025). Effect of environmental pollutants particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and ground level ozone (O3) on epilepsy. BMC Neurology, 25(1), Article 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-025-04142-3
7. Anwar, N., Shakoor, A., Ali, G., Ahmad, H., Niaz, N. A., Seerat-Ul-Arooj, & Mahmood, A. (2022). Synthesis and electrochemical characterization of polyaniline doped cadmium oxide (PANI-CdO) nanocomposites for supercapacitor applications. Journal of Energy Storage, 55, Article 105446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105446
8. Askar, P., Kanzhigitova, D., Tapkharov, A., Umbetova, K., Duisenbekov, S., Adilov, S., & Nuraje, N. (2025). Hydrogen sensors based on polyaniline and its hybrid materials: A mini review. Discover Nano, 20(1), Article 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-025-04231-9

9. Bharti, R., Thakur, A., Verma, M., & Sharma, R. (2025). Environmental and health impacts of air pollution: A state of art review on the strategy to control air pollution. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2807(1), Article 020015. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0270727
10. Bhujel, R., Rai, S., Biswas, J., & Swain, B. P. (2023). Investigation of structural, chemical bonding and electrochemical performance of rGO–PEDOT:PSS nanocomposites. Bulletin of Materials Science, 46(4), Article 204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-023-03045-8
11. Buttignol, F., Biasi, P., & Garbujo, A. (2025). Mitigating nitrogen oxides, N2O, and NH3 emissions in the chemical industry and ammonia combustion. ACS ES&T Engineering, 5(9), 2170–2180. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.5c00384
12. Dave, R., & Joshi, A. (2026). Air pollution. In Environmental toxicology and human health (pp. 45–72). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394399857.ch3
13. Deeksha Gowda, K., Vishnumurthy, K. A., & Kusanur, R. (2026). Bio-mimetic strategies for high-performance conjugated polymer gas sensors. ES Materials & Manufacturing, 39, Article 2064. https://doi.org/10.30919/es2064
14. Dessie, B. Y., Panjiar, H., Samuel, B., & Daniel, S. (2025). Recent development of conducting polymer nanocomposites based sensors for detecting pollutant gases. The Journal of Engineering, 2025(1), Article e70084. https://doi.org/10.1049/tje2.70084
15. Dong, R., Yang, M., Zuo, Y., Liang, L., Xing, H., Duan, X., & Chen, S. (2025). Conducting polymers-based gas sensors: Principles, materials, and applications. Sensors, 25(9), Article 2724. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25092724
16. Elhadad, S. M., Mansour, T., Elshibiny, I., & Elmarakby, F. (2025). Limitation of ammonia exposure among workers in fertilizers industry using modern modified technology towards sustainability. Alexandria Science Exchange Journal, 46(2), 507–519. https://doi.org/10.21608/asejaiqjsae.2025.438195
17. El-Sawy, N. M., El-Arnaouty, M. B., & Abdel Ghaffar, A. M. (2010). γ-Irradiation effect on the non-cross-linked and cross-linked polyvinyl alcohol films. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 49(2), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/03602550903284248
18. George, G., Raghav, G. R., Thomas, N. R., Ede, S. R., Shivamurthi, B., Nair, A. K., & Senthil, T. (2025). Gold nanoparticles-based gas sensors: A comprehensive review of design, mechanisms, and applications. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2025.2512174
19. Hassen, W., Hassen, B., El Ouaer, M., & Hassen, A. (2025). Atmospheric pollution: Current knowledge causes, effects, and relevance. In Handbook of the effects of landfill emissions on sustainable development (pp. 1–27). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-01951-6_1
20. He, Z., Gu, Y., Wang, H., Lu, X., Fan, W., & Li, Y. (2026). Chemical modification of PEDOT:PSS-based materials for multifunctional electromagnetic interference shielding. Chemical Communications, 62(20), 5603–5624. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CC07219K
21. Hjiri, M., & Neri, G. (2026). A review of PEDOT:PSS-based resistive gas sensors. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 155, 240–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2025.08.014
22. Huff, M. E., Gökmen, F. Ö., Barrera, J. S., Lara, E. J., Tunnell, J., Irvin, J., & Betancourt, T. (2020). Induction of immunogenic cell death in breast cancer by conductive polymer nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy. ACS Applied Polymer Materials, 2(12), 5602–5620. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.0c00938
23. Jain, A., Dhonde, M., Soni, A., Kumar, A., & Sahu, K. (2026). Polyaniline based blends and composites for gas sensing: A comprehensive review on materials, mechanisms, and applications. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 220, Article 106610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106610
24. Kayode, J. S. (2026). Air pollution by carbon monoxide (CO) poisonous gas in Nigeria: A review paper. Nigerian Journal of Physics, 35(1), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.62292/njp.v35i1.2026.466
25. Kuanova, A. O., Nurpeissova, Zh. A., Mangazbayeva, R. A., & Park, K. (2017). The obtaining of composite materials based on carboxymethylcellulose and polyvinyl alcohol. International Journal of Biology and Chemistry, 10(1), 62–68. https://doi.org/10.26577/2218-7979-2017-10-1-62-68
26. Kumar, S. S., Robert, B., Kalpathy, S. K., & Thomas, T. (2026). Polymeric sensors at the crossroads of sustainability and scalability: Low-temperature fabrication for environmental and health monitoring. RSC Applied Polymers. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5LP00385G
27. Kumar Sagar, A., Chakraborty, A., & Srivastava, R. K. (2025). Nitrogen dioxide trends: A global perspective with regional insights from India. In Air pollution and environmental health (pp. 321–340). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-75968-0_17
28. Kumari, A., Sengupta, A., & Agarwal, A. (2025). The role of conducting yarns in shaping next-generation wearable sensors: A review. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 17(30), 42541–42567. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5c09050
29. Masemola, C. M., Moloto, N., Tetana, Z., Linganiso, L. Z., Motaung, T. E., & Linganiso-Dziike, E. C. (2025). Advances in polyaniline-based composites for room-temperature chemiresistor gas sensors. Processes, 13(2), Article 401. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020401
30. Mohtaram, F., Christiansen, L., & Fojan, P. (2026). Electrospun PEDOT:PSS nanofiber hole transport layers: Effect of processing parameters and solvent treatment on morphology and perovskite film growth. Materials Today Communications, 53, Article 115386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2026.115386
31. Nandan, K., Amrish, & Singh, A. (2025). Health and safety measures associated with ammonium hydroxide exposure. In Hazardous chemicals: Overview, toxicological profile, challenges, and future perspectives (pp. 495–504). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95235-4.00081-5
32. Piwosz, K., & Polanczyk, A. (2026). Analysis of the effects of uncontrolled ammonia release from a tank with different spatial configurations. Zeszyty Naukowe SGSP, 97(1), Article 3001. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0055.6191
33. Rangel, A. M. S., Suresh Babu, R., Vinayagam, M., Samyn, L. M., Vinodh, R., & de Barros, A. L. F. (2025). Influence of electro-co-polymerization on the fabrication of PANI-PEDOT hybrid on flexible carbon fiber for supercapacitor applications. Materials Letters, 398, Article 138897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2025.138897
34. Rohilla, R., Prakash, J., & Dasgupta, K. (2025). Review of carbon nanotube/graphene nanosheet chemiresistive gas sensors. ACS Applied Nano Materials, 8(49), 23414–23465. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.5c04068
35. Saeed, P. A., Shilpa, R., & Sujith, A. (2022). A water-mediated approach for the preparation of conductive poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-decorated poly(methyl methacrylate) microcomposites. Materials Advances, 3(9), 3875–3884. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2MA00027J
36. Sakunpongpitiporn, P., Phasuksom, K., Paradee, N., & Sirivat, A. (2019). Facile synthesis of highly conductive PEDOT:PSS via surfactant templates. RSC Advances, 9(11), 6363–6378. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA08801B
37. Singh, V., Srivastava, R. K., & Bhatt, A. K. (2025). Major air pollutants. In Battling air and water pollution (pp. 31–42). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4375-2_3
38. Trchová, M., & Stejskal, J. (2011). Polyaniline: The infrared spectroscopy of conducting polymer nanotubes (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 83(10), 1803–1817. https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-02-01
39. Wang, L., & Choi, J. (2025). Advances in inorganic conductive material- and organic conductive polymer-based resistive gas sensors for room-temperature H2S detection. Micro and Nano Systems Letters, 13(1), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40486-025-00225-5
40. Wang, P., Xu, S., Shi, X., Zhu, J., Xiong, H., & Wen, H. (2025). Recent advances in resistive gas sensors: Fundamentals, material and device design, and intelligent applications. Chemosensors, 13(7), Article 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070224
41. Xia, Y., Li, J., Ji, Z., Zhou, K., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Tsang, S. W., Wong, K. W., Wang, Q., Wang, W. J., Cabot, A., Yang, X., & Lim, K. H. (2025). Surface-engineering cellulose nanofibers via in situ PEDOT polymerization for superior thermoelectric properties. Advanced Materials, 37(38), Article 2506338. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202506338
42. Yang, L., Mao, L., Du, S., Wang, Z., Fu, W., Yao, C., Xu, L., Zhang, H., & Cheng, H. (2025). Highly sensitive and fast response/recovery ammonia sensor based on PANI/LIG at room temperature. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 437, Article 137710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2025.137710