Türkiye’de Tüketici Güveninin Finansal Belirleyicileri: Çoklu Yapısal Kırılmalar Çerçevesinde Bir Zaman Serisi Yaklaşımı
Yıl 2025,
Cilt: 44 Sayı: 2
,
147
-
170
,
30.03.2026
Mustafa Albayrak
Ayça Özekin
Öz
Tüketici güveni, hanehalklarının mevcut ekonomik koşullara ilişkin algılarını ve geleceğe yönelik beklentilerini yansıtan ileriye dönük temel göstergelerden biridir. Sık makroekonomik şoklar ve politika rejimi değişiklikleriyle karakterize edilen gelişmekte olan ekonomilerde, tüketici güveni ile finansal değişkenler arasındaki uzun dönemli ilişkinin analizi, ekonomi politikalarının etkinliği açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’de Tüketici Güven Endeksi, ticari kredi faiz oranı, mevduat faiz oranı ve TÜFE bazlı reel efektif döviz kuru arasındaki uzun dönemli ilişki, 2014 Ocak – 2024 Aralık dönemine ait aylık veriler kullanılarak incelenmiştir. Çalışmada, önemli ekonomik ve politik şokların etkilerini dikkate almak amacıyla öncelikle çoklu yapısal kırılmalar belirlenmiş, ardından çoklu yapısal kırılmalara izin veren birim kök ve eşbütünleşme yöntemleri uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen bulgular, örneklem döneminde yaşanan rejim değişikliklerine rağmen TGE ile finansal göstergeler arasında istikrarlı bir uzun dönem eşbütünleşme ilişkisi bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Tamamen modifiye edilmiş en küçük kareler yöntemi ile tahmin edilen uzun dönem katsayıları, tüketici kredisi faiz oranlarındaki artışların tüketici güvenini istatistiksel olarak anlamlı biçimde azalttığını; buna karşılık mevduat faiz oranı ve reel efektif döviz kurunun tüketici güveni üzerinde pozitif ve anlamlı etkiler yarattığını ortaya koymaktadır. Nedensellik analizi sonuçları ise finansal değişkenlerden tüketici güvenine doğru güçlü yönlü ilişkilerin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Bulgular, Türkiye’de tüketici güveninin finansal koşullara ve döviz kuru dinamiklerine duyarlı bir yapıya sahip olduğunu ve özellikle kredi maliyetleri ile finansal piyasa göstergelerinin tüketici beklentilerinin oluşumunda belirleyici rol oynadığını göstermektedir.
Etik Beyan
Bu araştırma, yalnızca kamuya açık kaynaklardan elde edilen ikincil verilere dayandığı için etik kurul onayı gerektirmemektedir. Yazar(lar), bu çalışma kapsamında herhangi bir çıkar çatışmasının olmadığını beyan eder.
Destekleyen Kurum
Bu çalışma, herhangi bir kamu, ticari veya kâr amacı gütmeyen kuruluştan finansal destek almamıştır.
Teşekkür
Bu çalışma kapsamında herhangi bir teşekkür beyanı bulunmamaktadır.
Kaynakça
-
Angelico, C. (2018). Consumer confidence and credit cycles: A VAR analysis. Journal of Economic Studies, 45(3), 412–429.
-
Bai, J., & Perron, P. (1998). Estimating and testing linear models with multiple structural changes. Econometrica, 66(1), 47–78.
-
Başarır, Ç, Bicil, İ., & Yılmaz, Ö. (2019). The relationship between selected financial and macroeconomic variables with consumer confidence index. International Journal of Economic Studies, 14, 173–183.
-
Bloom, N. (2009). The impact of uncertainty shocks. Econometrica, 77(3), 623-685 https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA6248.
-
Bram, J., & Ludvigson, S. C. (1998). Does consumer confidence forecast household expenditure? A sentiment index horse race. Economic Policy Review, 4(2), 59–78.
-
Camba, A.L. (2020). Estimating the Nature of Relationship of Entrepreneurship and Business Confidence on Youth Unemployment in The Philippines, The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 7(8), 533-542.
-
Carrion-i-Silvestre, J. L., Kim, D., & Perron, P. (2009). GLS-based unit root tests with multiple structural breaks under both the null and the alternative hypotheses. Econometric Theory, 25(6), 1754–1792.
-
Carroll, C. D., Fuhrer, J. C. & Wilcox, D. W. (1994). Does consumer sentiment forecast household spending? If so, why?, American Economic Review, 84 (5), 1397-1408.
-
Çelik, Ş., Aslanoğlu, E., & Deniz, P. (2010). Tüketici güveni ile finansal ve makroekonomik değişkenler arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye örneği. Ege Academic Review, 10(3), 755–773.
-
Çetin, M., & Şeker, A. (2013). Toda–Yamamoto nedensellik testi ile Türkiye’de enerji tüketimi ve büyüme ilişkisi. Ege Academic Review, 13(2), 189–198.
-
De Stefani, J. (2017). Subjective expectations and household borrowing. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 49(5), 1051–1080.
-
Dees, S., & Brinca, P. S. (2013). Consumer confidence and economic uncertainty. European Central Bank Working Paper Series, No. 1349.
-
Demirgil, H., & Çelikkaya, S. (2019). Döviz kuru oynaklığının ekonomik belirsizlik üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye ekonomisi için ampirik bir analiz. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(3), 832-845.
-
Elliott, G., Rothenberg, T. J., & Stock, J. H. (1996). Efficient tests for an autoregressive unit root. Econometrica, 64(4), 813–836.
-
Eryüzlü, E. (2020). Consumer confidence and consumer credits in Turkey: A Toda-Yamamoto causality analysis. Journal of Business, Economics and Finance, 9(4), 204–216.
-
Ferrer, R., Salaber, J., & Zalewska, A. (2014). Consumer confidence indices and stock markets’ meltdowns. European Journal of Finance, 20(3), 195–220.
-
Garrett, T., Hernández-Murillo, R., & Owyang, M. (2005). Does consumer sentiment predict regional consumption? Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 87(1), 123–135.
-
Gayer, C. (2005). Forecast evaluation of European Commission survey indicators. Journal of Business Cycle Measurement and Analysis, 2(2), 157–183.
-
Gerlach, S. & Smets, F. (1999). Output gaps and monetary policy in the EMU area. European Economic Review, 43(4-6), 801-812 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2921(98)00095-6.
-
Ghosh, S. (2022). The impact of economic uncertainty and financial stress on consumer confidence: The case of Japan. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 29(1), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1108/JABES-04-2021-0044.
-
Göçer, İ., Mercan, M., & Peker, O. (2013). Kredi hacmi artışının cari açığa etkisi: Çoklu yapısal kırılmalı eşbütünleşme analizi. Istanbul University Econometrics and Statistics e-Journal, 18, 1–17.
-
Gökmen, T. (2022). İktisat Politikalarının Tüketici Güveni Üzerindeki Etkileri. Özgür Yayınları. DOI: https://doi.org/10.58830/ozgur.pub5
-
Görmüş, Ş., & Güneş, S. (2010). Consumer confidence, stock prices and exchange rates: The case of Turkey. Applied Econometrics and International Development, 10(2), 103–114.
-
Güneş, H., & Çelik, S. (2009, Temmuz). Consumer confidence and financial market variables in an emerging economy: The case of Turkey. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Computing in Economics and Finance (ss. 15–17). Sydney: University of Technology.
-
Hamurcu, Ç. (2020). How consumer confidence index affects foreign investors' portfolio and equity security investments: A research on Turkey. Celal Bayar University Journal of Social Sciences, 18(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.18026/cbayarsos.872876
-
Hardi, I., Ray, S., Duwal, N., Idroes, G., & Mardayantı, U. (2023). Consumer confidence and economic indicators: Evidence from Indonesia. International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 10(2), ss.25–40.
-
Islam, R. U., & Mumtaz, R. (2016). Consumer Confidence Index and Economic Growth: An Empirical Analysis of EU Countries. Euro Economica, 35(2), ss. 17-22.
-
İlhan, A. (2024). The asymmetric effects of consumer confidence on credit card spending in Turkey. Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, 22(1), 101–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.11611/yead.1407003.
-
Karasoy Can, H., & Yüncüler, Ç. (2018). The explanatory power and forecast performance of consumer confidence indices for private consumption growth in Turkey. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 54(9), 2136–2152. https://doi.org/10.1080/1540496X.2017.1358608
-
Katona, G. (1975). Psychological Economics. New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
-
Kılcı, E. (2020). Do confidence indicators have an impact on macro-financial indicators? An analysis of the financial service and real sector confidence indexes: Evidence from Turkey. European Journal of Government and Economics, 9(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/10.17979/ejge.2020.9.1.5948.
-
Kılcı, E. (2021). A study on confidence indexes in Turkey under structural breaks for the period covering the Covid-19 pandemic. Ömer Halisdemir University Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 14(3), 948–960. http://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.795657.
-
Kim, D., & Perron, P. (2009). Unit root tests allowing for a break in the trend function at an unknown time under both the null and alternative hypotheses. Journal of Econometrics, 148(1), 1–13.
-
Kłopocka, A. (2017a). Borrowing or precautionary saving? The role of house price expectations and credit constraints. Journal of Housing Economics, 35, 1–20.
-
Kłopocka, A. (2017b). Does consumer confidence predict household debt? Evidence from European countries. Journal of Economics and Finance, 41(2), 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJBA-10-2020-0362.
-
Koçak, S. & Karış, Ç. (2023). Döviz Kuru Oynaklığı ve Hane Halkı Tüketim Harcamaları: Türkiye’den Kanıtlar. Sosyoekonomi, 31(55), 283-296.
-
Leigh, D., & Rossi, M. (2002). Exchange rate pass-through in Turkey. IMF Working Paper No. 02/204.
-
Ludvigson, S. C. (2004). Consumer confidence and consumer spending. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 18(2), 29–50.
-
Maki, D. (2012). Tests for cointegration allowing for an unknown number of breaks. Economic Modelling, 29(5), 2011–2015.
-
Matsusaka, J. G., & Sbordone, A. M. (1995). Consumer confidence and economic fluctuations. Economic Inquiry, 33(2), 296–318.
-
Mazurek, J., & Mielcova, E. (2017). Is consumer confidence index a suitable predictor of future economic growth? An evidence from the USA. Ekonomie a Management, 20 (2), 30-45. https://doi.org/10.15240/tul/001/2017-2-003
-
Mishkin, F. S. (1978). Consumer sentiment and spending on durable goods. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1, 217–232.
-
Mourougane, A., & Moreno, R. (2002). The role of consumer confidence in forecasting household consumption in the United States and Japan. OECD Working Paper No. 319.
-
Ng, S., & Perron, P. (2001). Lag length selection and the construction of unit root tests with good size and power. Econometrica, 69(6), 1519–1554.
-
OECD. (2018). OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey 2018. Paris: OECD Publishing.
-
Özdamar, H. (2024). Tüketici Güven Endeksi ile döviz kuru, faiz oranı ve enflasyon oranı arasındaki ilişki: kırılgan beşli ülkeleri üzerine inceleme. Konya: Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İktisat Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
-
Perron, P. (1989). The great crash, the oil price shock, and the unit root hypothesis. Econometrica, 57(6), 1361–1401.
-
Phillips, P. C. B., & Hansen, B. E. (1990). Statistical inference in instrumental variables regression with I(1) processes. Review of Economic Studies, 57(1), 99–125.
-
Sarı, S., & Ilgın, K. (2018). Makroekonomik faktörler ile tüketici güven endeksi arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi: Türkiye örneği. (İçinde) 5th International Congress on Political, Economic and Social Studies (ICPESS), 394-402.
-
Souleles, N. S. (2004). Expectations, heterogeneous forecast errors, and consumption: Micro evidence from the Michigan consumer sentiment surveys. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 36(1), 39–72.
-
Stock, J. H. (1999). A class of tests for integration and cointegration. In R. F. Engle & H. White (Eds.), Cointegration, causality, and forecasting: A festschrift in honour of Clive W. J. Granger (pp. 135–167). Oxford University Press.
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Financial Determinants of Consumer Confidence in Türkiye: A Time Series Approach with Multiple Structural Breaks
Yıl 2025,
Cilt: 44 Sayı: 2
,
147
-
170
,
30.03.2026
Mustafa Albayrak
Ayça Özekin
Öz
Consumer confidence is one of the key forward-looking indicators reflecting households’ perceptions of current economic conditions and their expectations for the future. In emerging economies characterized by frequent macroeconomic shocks and policy regime changes, analyzing the long-run relationship between consumer confidence and financial variables is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of economic policies. This study examines the long-run relationship between the Consumer Confidence Index (CCI), commercial loan interest rates, deposit interest rates, and the CPI-based real effective exchange rate in Türkiye using monthly data covering the period from January 2014 to December 2024. To account for the effects of major economic and political shocks, multiple structural breaks are first identified, and unit root and cointegration methods that allow for multiple structural breaks are subsequently employed. The empirical findings indicate the existence of a stable long-run cointegration relationship between the CCI and financial indicators despite regime changes observed during the sample period. Long-run coefficients estimated using the Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS) method reveal that increases in consumer loan interest rates significantly reduce consumer confidence, whereas deposit interest rates and the real effective exchange rate exert positive and statistically significant effects on consumer confidence. The results of the causality analysis further point to the presence of strong unidirectional relationships running from financial variables to consumer confidence. Overall, the findings suggest that consumer confidence in Türkiye is highly sensitive to financial conditions and exchange rate dynamics, with credit costs and financial market indicators playing a decisive role in shaping consumer expectations.
Etik Beyan
This research does not require ethical committee approval since it relies exclusively on secondary data obtained from publicly accessible sources. The author(s) declare that no conflict of interest exists in relation to this research.
Destekleyen Kurum
This research did not receive any financial support from public, commercial, or non-profit funding agencies.
Teşekkür
No acknowledgements are declared.
Kaynakça
-
Angelico, C. (2018). Consumer confidence and credit cycles: A VAR analysis. Journal of Economic Studies, 45(3), 412–429.
-
Bai, J., & Perron, P. (1998). Estimating and testing linear models with multiple structural changes. Econometrica, 66(1), 47–78.
-
Başarır, Ç, Bicil, İ., & Yılmaz, Ö. (2019). The relationship between selected financial and macroeconomic variables with consumer confidence index. International Journal of Economic Studies, 14, 173–183.
-
Bloom, N. (2009). The impact of uncertainty shocks. Econometrica, 77(3), 623-685 https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA6248.
-
Bram, J., & Ludvigson, S. C. (1998). Does consumer confidence forecast household expenditure? A sentiment index horse race. Economic Policy Review, 4(2), 59–78.
-
Camba, A.L. (2020). Estimating the Nature of Relationship of Entrepreneurship and Business Confidence on Youth Unemployment in The Philippines, The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 7(8), 533-542.
-
Carrion-i-Silvestre, J. L., Kim, D., & Perron, P. (2009). GLS-based unit root tests with multiple structural breaks under both the null and the alternative hypotheses. Econometric Theory, 25(6), 1754–1792.
-
Carroll, C. D., Fuhrer, J. C. & Wilcox, D. W. (1994). Does consumer sentiment forecast household spending? If so, why?, American Economic Review, 84 (5), 1397-1408.
-
Çelik, Ş., Aslanoğlu, E., & Deniz, P. (2010). Tüketici güveni ile finansal ve makroekonomik değişkenler arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye örneği. Ege Academic Review, 10(3), 755–773.
-
Çetin, M., & Şeker, A. (2013). Toda–Yamamoto nedensellik testi ile Türkiye’de enerji tüketimi ve büyüme ilişkisi. Ege Academic Review, 13(2), 189–198.
-
De Stefani, J. (2017). Subjective expectations and household borrowing. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 49(5), 1051–1080.
-
Dees, S., & Brinca, P. S. (2013). Consumer confidence and economic uncertainty. European Central Bank Working Paper Series, No. 1349.
-
Demirgil, H., & Çelikkaya, S. (2019). Döviz kuru oynaklığının ekonomik belirsizlik üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye ekonomisi için ampirik bir analiz. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(3), 832-845.
-
Elliott, G., Rothenberg, T. J., & Stock, J. H. (1996). Efficient tests for an autoregressive unit root. Econometrica, 64(4), 813–836.
-
Eryüzlü, E. (2020). Consumer confidence and consumer credits in Turkey: A Toda-Yamamoto causality analysis. Journal of Business, Economics and Finance, 9(4), 204–216.
-
Ferrer, R., Salaber, J., & Zalewska, A. (2014). Consumer confidence indices and stock markets’ meltdowns. European Journal of Finance, 20(3), 195–220.
-
Garrett, T., Hernández-Murillo, R., & Owyang, M. (2005). Does consumer sentiment predict regional consumption? Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 87(1), 123–135.
-
Gayer, C. (2005). Forecast evaluation of European Commission survey indicators. Journal of Business Cycle Measurement and Analysis, 2(2), 157–183.
-
Gerlach, S. & Smets, F. (1999). Output gaps and monetary policy in the EMU area. European Economic Review, 43(4-6), 801-812 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2921(98)00095-6.
-
Ghosh, S. (2022). The impact of economic uncertainty and financial stress on consumer confidence: The case of Japan. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 29(1), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1108/JABES-04-2021-0044.
-
Göçer, İ., Mercan, M., & Peker, O. (2013). Kredi hacmi artışının cari açığa etkisi: Çoklu yapısal kırılmalı eşbütünleşme analizi. Istanbul University Econometrics and Statistics e-Journal, 18, 1–17.
-
Gökmen, T. (2022). İktisat Politikalarının Tüketici Güveni Üzerindeki Etkileri. Özgür Yayınları. DOI: https://doi.org/10.58830/ozgur.pub5
-
Görmüş, Ş., & Güneş, S. (2010). Consumer confidence, stock prices and exchange rates: The case of Turkey. Applied Econometrics and International Development, 10(2), 103–114.
-
Güneş, H., & Çelik, S. (2009, Temmuz). Consumer confidence and financial market variables in an emerging economy: The case of Turkey. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Computing in Economics and Finance (ss. 15–17). Sydney: University of Technology.
-
Hamurcu, Ç. (2020). How consumer confidence index affects foreign investors' portfolio and equity security investments: A research on Turkey. Celal Bayar University Journal of Social Sciences, 18(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.18026/cbayarsos.872876
-
Hardi, I., Ray, S., Duwal, N., Idroes, G., & Mardayantı, U. (2023). Consumer confidence and economic indicators: Evidence from Indonesia. International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 10(2), ss.25–40.
-
Islam, R. U., & Mumtaz, R. (2016). Consumer Confidence Index and Economic Growth: An Empirical Analysis of EU Countries. Euro Economica, 35(2), ss. 17-22.
-
İlhan, A. (2024). The asymmetric effects of consumer confidence on credit card spending in Turkey. Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, 22(1), 101–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.11611/yead.1407003.
-
Karasoy Can, H., & Yüncüler, Ç. (2018). The explanatory power and forecast performance of consumer confidence indices for private consumption growth in Turkey. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 54(9), 2136–2152. https://doi.org/10.1080/1540496X.2017.1358608
-
Katona, G. (1975). Psychological Economics. New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
-
Kılcı, E. (2020). Do confidence indicators have an impact on macro-financial indicators? An analysis of the financial service and real sector confidence indexes: Evidence from Turkey. European Journal of Government and Economics, 9(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/10.17979/ejge.2020.9.1.5948.
-
Kılcı, E. (2021). A study on confidence indexes in Turkey under structural breaks for the period covering the Covid-19 pandemic. Ömer Halisdemir University Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 14(3), 948–960. http://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.795657.
-
Kim, D., & Perron, P. (2009). Unit root tests allowing for a break in the trend function at an unknown time under both the null and alternative hypotheses. Journal of Econometrics, 148(1), 1–13.
-
Kłopocka, A. (2017a). Borrowing or precautionary saving? The role of house price expectations and credit constraints. Journal of Housing Economics, 35, 1–20.
-
Kłopocka, A. (2017b). Does consumer confidence predict household debt? Evidence from European countries. Journal of Economics and Finance, 41(2), 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJBA-10-2020-0362.
-
Koçak, S. & Karış, Ç. (2023). Döviz Kuru Oynaklığı ve Hane Halkı Tüketim Harcamaları: Türkiye’den Kanıtlar. Sosyoekonomi, 31(55), 283-296.
-
Leigh, D., & Rossi, M. (2002). Exchange rate pass-through in Turkey. IMF Working Paper No. 02/204.
-
Ludvigson, S. C. (2004). Consumer confidence and consumer spending. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 18(2), 29–50.
-
Maki, D. (2012). Tests for cointegration allowing for an unknown number of breaks. Economic Modelling, 29(5), 2011–2015.
-
Matsusaka, J. G., & Sbordone, A. M. (1995). Consumer confidence and economic fluctuations. Economic Inquiry, 33(2), 296–318.
-
Mazurek, J., & Mielcova, E. (2017). Is consumer confidence index a suitable predictor of future economic growth? An evidence from the USA. Ekonomie a Management, 20 (2), 30-45. https://doi.org/10.15240/tul/001/2017-2-003
-
Mishkin, F. S. (1978). Consumer sentiment and spending on durable goods. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1, 217–232.
-
Mourougane, A., & Moreno, R. (2002). The role of consumer confidence in forecasting household consumption in the United States and Japan. OECD Working Paper No. 319.
-
Ng, S., & Perron, P. (2001). Lag length selection and the construction of unit root tests with good size and power. Econometrica, 69(6), 1519–1554.
-
OECD. (2018). OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey 2018. Paris: OECD Publishing.
-
Özdamar, H. (2024). Tüketici Güven Endeksi ile döviz kuru, faiz oranı ve enflasyon oranı arasındaki ilişki: kırılgan beşli ülkeleri üzerine inceleme. Konya: Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İktisat Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
-
Perron, P. (1989). The great crash, the oil price shock, and the unit root hypothesis. Econometrica, 57(6), 1361–1401.
-
Phillips, P. C. B., & Hansen, B. E. (1990). Statistical inference in instrumental variables regression with I(1) processes. Review of Economic Studies, 57(1), 99–125.
-
Sarı, S., & Ilgın, K. (2018). Makroekonomik faktörler ile tüketici güven endeksi arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi: Türkiye örneği. (İçinde) 5th International Congress on Political, Economic and Social Studies (ICPESS), 394-402.
-
Souleles, N. S. (2004). Expectations, heterogeneous forecast errors, and consumption: Micro evidence from the Michigan consumer sentiment surveys. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 36(1), 39–72.
-
Stock, J. H. (1999). A class of tests for integration and cointegration. In R. F. Engle & H. White (Eds.), Cointegration, causality, and forecasting: A festschrift in honour of Clive W. J. Granger (pp. 135–167). Oxford University Press.
-
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