Mental Training Levels in Disabled Elite Athletes

Öz

The aim of this study was to examine the mental training levels of elite athletes with disabilities and to identify the key mental skills that contribute to performance improvement. The research group consisted of 208 national athletes, including 106 goalball, 74 wheelchair basketball, and 28 football players. Data were collected using a “Personal Information Form” and the Sport Mental Training Inventory developed by Behnke et al. (2017) and adapted into Turkish by Yarayan and İlhan (2018). The findings revealed significant differences in mental training skills according to demographic variables such as gender, age, sport branch, and education level. These results indicate that mental training is influenced by both personal and environmental factors. The study emphasizes the importance of developing individualized and disability-inclusive mental training programs to strengthen the psychological resilience and performance of disabled athletes.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Athletes with disabilities
• Elite athlete
• Mental training
• Psychological skills

Kaynakça

1. Atıcı, A. R., Erbaş, M. K., & Paksoy, A. M. (2024). Investigation of the mental training status of university students interested in individual and team sports. Journal of Sport and Recreation for Everyone, 6(1), 67-72
2. Behnke, M., Tomczak, M., Kaczmarek, L. D., Komar, M., & Gracz, J. (2019). The sport mental training questionnaire: Development and validation. Current Psychology, 38(2), 504–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9629-1
3. Birrer, D., & Morgan, G. (2010). Psychological skills training as a way to enhance an athlete’s performance in high-intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01188.x
4. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2017). Data analysis handbook. Pegem.
5. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE.
6. Ericsson, K. A., & Krampe, R. T. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363-406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363
7. Erdoğan, B. S., & Gülşen, D. B. A. (2020). Determination of mental training levels of athletes studying in the faculty of sport sciences, Mediterranean Journal of Sport Sciences, 3(1), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.38021/asbid.753967
8. Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2010). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook (6th ed.). Psychology Press.

9. Field, A. (2013). Discovering Statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE.
10. Gucciardi, D. F., & Dimmock, J. A. (2008). Choking under pressure in sensorimotor skills: Conscious processing or depletion of attentional resources? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.01.001
11. Gustafsson, H., Hassmén, P., & Podlog, L. (2010). Exploring burnout in elite athletes: A cultural perspective. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8(4), 409–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2010.9671955000000
12. Hanrahan, S. J. (2016). Sport psychology for athletes with disabilities. In A. Papaioannou & D. Hackfort (Eds.), Routledge companion to sport and exercise psychology (pp. 489-500). Routledge.
13. Hardy, J., Hall, C. R., & Hardy, L. (2005). Quantifying athlete self-talk. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(9), 905-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410400021569
14. Hays, K. F. (2009). Performance psychology in practice. American Psychological Association.
15. Johnson, P. K. (2020). The impact of motivation on cognitive and social skills in adolescent athletes. International Journal of Sport Science, 12(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.5678/ijss.2020.1201
16. Jonker, L., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., & Visscher, C. (2010). The role of self-regulatory skills in sport and academic performances of elite youth athletes. Talent Development and Excellence, 2(2), 165-178.
17. Kaiseler, M., Polman, R. C. J., & Nicholls, A. R. (2012). Effects of the big five personality dimensions on appraisal, coping, and coping effectiveness in sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2010.551410
18. Karasar, N. (2012). Scientific research method. Nobel.
19. Martin, J. J. (2018). Handbook of disability sport and exercise psychology. Oxford University. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190638054.001.0001
20. Martin, J. J. (2012). Athletes with disabilities: Performance enhancement through mental skills training. In S. Murphy (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (pp. 261-279). Oxford University.
21. Martin, J. J. (2005). The role of sport in the psychosocial development of youth with physical disabilities. The Sport Psychologist, 19(4), 364–379.
22. Martin, J. J., & Wheeler, G. D. (2011). Psychology of athletes with disabilities. In Tenenbaum, G., & Eklund, R. C. (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd ed.). (pp. 797–817). Wiley.
23. Martin, J. J. (1999). Team cohesion in sport: The impact of group integration and individual attraction to the group. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 22(2), 161-175.
24. Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R. C. J., Levy, A. R., & Backhouse, S. H. (2009). Mental toughness, optimism, and coping among athletes. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(1), 73-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.016
25. Orhan, E. (2020). Investigation of swimmers' mental training and personality traits in terms of different variables. Master's thesis. Fırat University, Institute of Health Sciences, Elazığ.
26. Pensgaard, A. M., & Sorensen, M. (2002). Empowerment through the sport experience: Experiences of the mentally disabled. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19(1), 44-61.
27. Rimmer, J. H., & Rowland, J. L. (2008). Physical activity for youth with disabilities: A critical need in an underserved population. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 11(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/17518420802088649
28. Sherrill, C. (2004). Adapted physical activity, recreation, and sport: Crossdisciplinary and lifespan. McGraw-Hill.
29. Smith, J. A., Brown, L. M., & Davis, R. T. (2018). Motivation and skill acquisition in youth athletes: A developmental perspective. Journal of Sports Psychology, 45(3), 210–225.
30. Smith, A. L., Balaguer, I., & Duda, J. L. (2012). Social motivation and the regulation of behavior in youth sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(2), 150–163.
31. Smith, R. E., Schutz, R. W., Smoll, F. L., & Ptacek, J. T. (1995). Development and validation of a multidimensional measure of sport-specific psychological skills: The athletic coping skills inventory-28. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(4), 379–398. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.4.379
32. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Pearson.
33. Tamres, L. K., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(1), 2–30. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0601_1
34. Vealey, R. S. (2007). Mental skills training in sport. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed.). (pp. 287–309). Wiley.
35. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2019). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (7th ed.). (pp. 205–240). Human Kinetics.
36. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2014). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (6th ed.). (pp. 191-227). Human Kinetics.
37. Williams, S. E., & Cumming, J. (2012). Sport imagery ability moderates challenge and threat appraisals and anxiety in athletes with disabilities. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24(3), 328–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.590076
38. Wuang, Y.-P., Su, C.-Y., & Huang, M.-H. (2010). Effects of sports training on the motor and cognitive abilities of children with visual impairment. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(4), 940-947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2010.03.009
39. Yarayan, Y. E., & İlhan, E. L. (2018). Self-regulation strategies: Anxiety and self-efficacy concepts in the context of biofeedback and imagery. Pegem.