Türkiye’de Ücretsiz Emeğin Piyasa Değerinin Tahmini ve AB Ekonomileri ile bir Karşılaştırma

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 1 Sayı: 60, 479 - 508, 01.01.2019

Umut Gündüz İpek İlkkaracan

Öz

Birleşmiş Milletler’in 1993’te aldığı bir tavsiye kararı ile hane içi üretim faaliyetlerinin ulusal hesaplar sistemine dahil edilmesi öngörülmüştür. Bunu takiben pek çok ülkede ücretsiz ev içi emeğin toplam piyasa değerini ve GSYH’ya katkısını tahmin eden çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Bu araştırmalar hem bakım emeğinin önemli bir ekonomik olgu olarak tanınması, hem de bu emeğin dağılımındaki toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliklerine dikkat çekilmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışma, Türkiye’nin resmi Zaman Kullanımı Anketi ZKA verilerini kullanarak Türkiye’de ev içerisindeki ücretsiz mal ve hizmet üretiminin – diğer adıyla bakım ekonomisinin – piyasa değerini tahmin etmektedir. 2006 yılı Avrupa ZKA verilerini kullanarak yapılan başka bir çalışmadan yola çıkarak, Türkiye sonuçlarını AB ülkeleriyle de karşılaştırmaktadır. Türkiye’de ev içi üretim saatleri toplam çalışma saatlerinin %52’sini teşkil ederken, ücretsiz çalışma saatlerinde kadınların payı %86 ağırlıklıdır. Yıllık toplam çalışma saatlerinin ücretli işgücü piyasası ve ücretsiz ev içi çalışma saatlerinin toplamının yarısından fazlası %55’i kadınlara aittir. Ev içi üretimin piyasa değeri kullanılan yönteme göre GSYH’nın %21’i ile %29’u arasında değişmektedir. AB-24 ile yapılan karşılaştırmada, ev içi üretimin tahmin edilen piyasa değeri açısından, Türkiye AB-24 ortalamasının kısmen altında, 19. sırada yer almaktadır. Ev içi çalışma saatlerinde ise Türkiye erkeklerde en düşük değere sahipken, kadınlarda en yüksek üç ülke arasında yer almaktadır. Zaman kullanımındaki cinsiyet uçurumu Türkiye’yi AB ülkelerinden belirgin bir şekilde ayırmaktadır. Bu bulgular, Türkiye’de hane içi ücretsiz emeğin daha eşitlikçi dağılımına yönelik politika müdahalelerine olan gereksinimi işaret etmektedir

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ücretsiz emek, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizlikleri, hanahalkı uydu gayrisafi yurt içi hasıla hesapları, Türkiye

Estimation of the Market Value of the Unpaid Work in Turkey and a Comparison to the EU Economies

Öz

Since the United Nations recommendation in 1993 to introduce domestic production into systems of national accounts, the market value of the unpaid care economy has been estimated for a wide range of countries around the world. These studies recognize the economic contribution of unpaid household work, while also making visible the immense magnitude of gender imbalances in its distribution. This study provides the first estimate of the total market value of unpaid work in Turkey using nationally representative data from the 2006 Time-Use Survey TUS . Taking advantage of a similar study for EU countries also based on 2006 European TUS, we are able to assess the Turkish results from a cross-country perspective. Our results show that unpaid domestic work hours constitute as much as 52 percent of total work hours in Turkey, and 86 percent is performed by women. Considering the total annual paid + unpaid work hours in Turkey, we find that women perform more than half 55 percent of total work. We estimate the market value of unpaid work in domestic goods and services production at a minimum of 21 percent of official GDP in 2006 and a maximum of 29 percent, depending on the method of estimation. Comparison of our results to parallel estimations for EU countries shows that the market value of household production in Turkey is slightly lower than the EU average expressed as share of GDP. What distinguishes the Turkish case from the EU is the immense gender imbalance in the distribution of market versus non-market work hours and also the very low market replacement wage rate reflecting inherent gender biases in the labor market. The findings have important policy implications for Turkey with respect to the urgent need for interventions towards redistribution of unpaid domestic work between the market and non-market spheres, as well as between women and men within the household; and the potential therein for boosting growth and employment in Turkey

Anahtar Kelimeler

Unpaid work, gender inequalities, time-use, household satellite GDP accounts, Turkey

Kaynakça

• Bettio, F. and Plantenga, J., 2004. “Comparing Care Regimes in Europe” Feminist Economics, Vol. 10(1), pp. 85-113.
• Blades, D., 2000. A proposal for a satellite account for non-market household production in Household Accounting: Experience in Concepts and Compilation Volume 2: Household Satellite Extensions, UN.
• Carrasco, C. and M. Serrano, 2011. Lights and Shadows of Household Satellite Accounts: The Case of Catolonia Spain. Feminist Economics Vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 63-85.
• Dulaney, R. A., Fitzgerald, J. H., Swenson, M. S. and Wicks, J. H., 1992. Market Valuation of Household Production. Journal of Forensic Economics Vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 115-26.
• Folbre, N., 1994. Children as Public Goods. The American Economic Review, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp. 86-90.
• Giannelli, G.C., L. Mangiavacchi and L. Piccoli. 2012. GDP and the Value of Family Caretaking: How much does Europe Care? Applied Economics, Vol. 44, pp. 2111-2131.
• Goldschmidt-Clermont, L., 2000. Measuring and valuing non-SNA activities in Household Accounting: Experience in Concepts and Compilation Volume 2: Household Satellite Extensions, UN.
• Goldschmidt-Clermont, L. and Pagnossin-Aligisakis, E., 1999. Households’ non-SNA production: labor time, value of labor and of product, and contribution to extended private consumption. Review of Income and Wealth,Vol. 45, pp. 519-529.
• Goldschmidt-Clermont, L. and Pagnossin-Aligisakis, E., 1995. Measures of Unrecorded Economic Activities in Fourteen Countries, United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office, Occasional Paper No. 20,1995. (Out of print, but available in Background Papers for the Human Development Report 1995, 105-55, UN Sales Number E.96.11 l.B.3).
• Helburn, S. W., 1999. ‘‘Child Care’’ in Janice Peterson and Margaret Lewis (eds.) Elgar Companion to Feminist Economics, pp. 39-46. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
• Himmelweit, S., 2007. The Prospects for Caring: Economic Theory and Policy Analysis. Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 31, 581-599
• Ilkkaracan, I. and S. Değirmenci. 2013. Impact of Household Labor Supply Structure on Poverty, Topics in Middle Eastern and African Economies, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013.
• Ilkkaracan, I. and Selim, R., 2007. The Gender Wage Gap in the Turkish Labor Market, Labour: Review of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Vol. 21, No. 2. pp. 563-593.
• Ironmonger, D., 2006. Future directions of Time Use Research, paper presentation on Time Use and Gender Seminar. 14th June 2006, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
• Kasnakoglu, Z. and Dayioglu, M., 2002. “Measuring the Value of Home Production in Turkey” in New Developments in National Accounts, T. Bulutay (ed.), Ankara: SIS, pp. 73-97.
• Landefeld, J. S. and McCulla, S. H., 2000. Accounting for nonmarket household production within a national accounts framework. Review of Income and Wealth, Vol. 46, pp. 289-307.
• Latigo, A.A.R. and Neijwa M., 2005. A new Round of Time-use Studies for Africa: Measuring Unpaid Work for Pro-poor Development Policies paper presentation, Global Conference on the Unpaid Work and the Economy, Bureau for Development Policy, UNDP and Levy Institute, October 1-3.
• Lemaire, M., 1987. Satellite Accounts: A Relevant Framework for Analysis in Social Fields. Review of Income and Wealth, Vol. 33, Issue 3, pp. 305-325.
• Miranda, V. 2011. Cooking, caring and volunteering: unpaid work around the world, OECD social, employment and migration working papers No. 116.
• Razavi, S., 2007. The Political and Social Economy of Care in a Development Context: Conceptual Issues, Research Questions and Policy Options. Gender and Development Programme Paper No:3, UNRISD.
• Shivakumar, S. J., 2000. “Valuation as an issue in national accounting and policy analysis.” in Household Accounting: Experience in Concepts and Compilation Volume 2: Household Satellite Extensions, UN.
• United Nations, 2005. Guide to Producing Statistics on Time Use: Measuring Paid and Unpaid Work, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York.
• United Nations, 1996. Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, United Nations, New York.
• United Nations Statistics Division, 1993. System of National Accounts, New York.
• Varjonen, J. and Niemi, I., 2000. “A proposal for a European satellite account of household production” in Household Accounting: Experience in concepts and Compilation Volume 2: Household Satellite Extensions, UN.
• Zacharias, A., T. Masterson and E. Memiş. 2014. “Time Deficits and Poverty: The Levy Institute Measure for Time and Consumption Poverty for Turkey”, Ankara: UNDP Turkey. Estimation of the Market Value of th