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Capitalism’s Demand for Labour and Female Migrant Labour

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 79, 3049 - 3072, 22.09.2023
https://doi.org/10.54752/ct.1364591

Öz

As a regime of production and accumulation, migrant workers play an important role in providing the labour force required by capitalism. Changes in the regime determine the extent and nature of the need for migrant labour. When looking at these changes, the gender of labour provides an important point of analysis and helps to see the similarities and differences between migrant women's labour and migrant men's labour. This article discusses the period following the Second World War from a historical perspective in Europe under three main headings, first in the factories and mines of the Fordist production regime, then in the crisis of reproduction observed in the neoliberal globalization process following the economic crisis of the 1970s, and today's cognitive capitalism from a gender perspective.
Based on a comprehensive literature review, this study examines the gender distribution of the unskilled labour force needed in the manufacturing industry, mining, services and agriculture in Western European countries in the first period following the Second World War and sheds light on the presence of migrant women workers in this period, which was perceived as the migration of men. Following the 1973 economic crisis, the period of neoliberal restructuring of capitalism was also a period of reproduction crisis due to socioeconomic and sociodemographic changes. In order to overcome the reproduction crisis, in other words, the care deficit, the employment of migrant women in domestic and care work has increased the demand for migrant women labour. Recently, in line with the needs of cognitive capitalism, the migration of highly skilled labour has come to the fore. Developed countries encourage the migration of skilled labour, especially in the information and communication and health sectors, and highly educated women participate in the migration process to the extent that they react to the unequal conditions in their home countries

Kaynakça

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  • Badgett M.V. L. ve Folbre N. (1999) “Assigning care: Gender norms and economic outcomes”, International Labour Review, Vol. 138, No.3, 311-326.
  • Braeg D. (2012) "Wilder Streik - das ist Revolution" der Streik der Arbeiterinnen von Pierburg in Neuss 1973, Berlin: Die Buchmacherei.
  • Campani G. (1993) “Labour Markets and Family Networks: Filipino Women in Italy”, Rudolp H., Morokvasic M. (eds.) International Migration in the Early 1990s içinde, Berlin: edition sigma.
  • Castles S. ve Godula K. (1973) Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, London: Oxford University Press.
  • Castles S. (1984) Here For Good: Western Europe’s New Ethnic Minorities, London:Pluto Press.
  • Castles S. ve Miller M.J. (1998) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in The Modern World, Hong Kong: The Guilford Press.
  • Castles, S., Cubas, M. A., Kim, C. ve Özkul, D. (2012) “Irregular migration: causes, patterns, and strategies”, I. Omelaniuk (Ed.), Global perspectives on migration and development içinde, New York: IOM Springer, 117–151.
  • Castles S., De Haas H. ve Miller M.J. (2014) The Age of Migration, Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan
  • Chen D.H.C. ve Dahlman C. J. (2006) The Knowledge Economy, The Kam Methodology And World Bank Operations, Washington DC: WBI.
  • Christou A. ve Kofman E. (2022) Gender and Migration, IMISCOE Short Reader. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-91971-9
  • Coffey W.J. (1996) “The ‘Newer’ International Division of Labour”, Lever W. ve Daniels P. (eds) The Global Economy in Transition içinde London: Longman, 40-61.
  • Çengel, Y. (2009), “Beyin Gücü ve Beyin Göçü: Madalyonun Diğer Yüzü”, Eğitime Bakış, 5 (13), 7-13.
  • Delgado Wise R. (2022) Imperialism, Unequal Exchange and Labour Export, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356289674
  • Docquier, F., Lindsay Lowell B. ve Marfouk A. (2007), “A Gendered Assessment of the Brain Drain”, IZA Discussion Paper No. 3235, Bonn: IZA.
  • Docquier, F., Marfouk A., Salomone S. ve Sekkat K. (2012), “Are Skilled Women More Migratory than Skilled Men?”, World Development, 40(2): 251–265.
  • Dumont, J. C., Martin J.P. ve Spielvogel G. (2007), “Women on the Move: The Neglected Gender Dimension of the Brain Drain”, IZA Discussion Paper No. 2920, Bonn: IZA.
  • Ehrenreich, B. ve Hochschild A.R. (2003) Global Women, Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, New York: Metropolitan Books.
  • Elveren A. Y. ve Toksöz G. (2018), “Türkiye’de Beyin Göçü Yazını ve Bir Alan Araştırması”, Karadoğan E. vd. (yay. haz.) Gürhan Fişek’in İzinde Ortak Emek ve Ortak Eylem içinde, Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
  • Elveren A. Y. ve Toksöz G. (2019), “Hidden gender dimensions of the brain drain: the case of Turkey”, New Perspectives on Turkey, 60, 33–59.
  • Esping-Andersen G. (2011) The Incomplete Revolution, Cambridge, Malden: Polity Press.
  • Folbre N. (2006) “Measuring Care: Gender, Empowerment, and the Care Economy” Journal of Human Development, 7(2), July 2006, 183-199.
  • Foster, J. B., McChesney R.W. ve Jonna J. (2011) “The Global Reserve Army of Labour and the New Imperialism”, Monthly Review 63, no. 6, 1–15.
  • Fraser N. (2016) “Contradicitons of Capital and Care”, New Left Review 100, July August 2016. 99-117.
  • Godin B. (2006) “The Knowledge-Based Economy: Conceptual Framework or Buzzword?” Technology Transfer 31, 17-30.
  • Grigoleit-Richter G. (2017) “Highly skilled and highly mobile? Examining gendered and ethnicised labour market conditions for migrant women in STEM professions in Germany”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43:16, 2738-2755.
  • Güngör, N. D. (2014) “The Gender Dimension of Skilled Migration and Return Intentions: Implications for Home Countries”, Conference: Harnessing Knowledge on the Migration of Highly Skilled Women, IOM: Geneva, 117–125.
  • https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269410864_The_gender_dimension_of_skilled_migration_and_return_intentions_Implications_for_home_countries
  • Güngör, N. D. ve Tansel A. (2008), “Brain Drain from Turkey: The Case of Professionals Abroad”, International Journal of Manpower, 29(4), 323–347.
  • Hartmann H. (1992) “Marksizm’le Feminizmin Mutsuz Evliliği”, Savran G. ve Tuna N. (der) Kadının Görünmeyen Emeği içinde, İstanbul: Kardelen Yayınları, 128-170.
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  • Kofman E. (2000) "The Invisibility of Skilled Female Migrants and Gender Relations in Studies of Skilled Migration in Europe" International Journal of Population Geography, 6 (1), 45-59.
  • Kofman E., Phizacklea A., Raghuram P. ve Sales R. (2000) Gender and International Migration in Europe, London, New York: Routledge.
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Kapitalizmin İşgücü Talebi ve Göçmen Kadın Emeği

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 79, 3049 - 3072, 22.09.2023
https://doi.org/10.54752/ct.1364591

Öz

Bir üretim ve birikim rejimi olarak kapitalizmin ihtiyaç duyduğu işgücünün temininde göçmen işçilerin önemli yeri vardır. Rejimdeki değişiklikler göçmen işgücüne ihtiyacın boyutlarını ve niteliğini belirler. Bu değişikliklere bakılırken emeğin toplumsal cinsiyeti önemli bir analiz noktası sunar ve göçmen kadın emeğinin göçmen erkek emeğiyle benzeşen ve farklılaşan yönlerini görmek bakımından yarar sağlar. Bu makale İkinci Dünya Savaşını izleyen dönemi tarihsel bir perspektiften Avrupa ekseninde üç ana başlık altında ele alarak, önce Fordist üretim rejiminin fabrika ve madenlerinde, sonra 1970’lerdeki ekonomik krizi izleyen neoliberal küreselleşme sürecinde gözlenen yeniden üretim krizinde ve günümüzün bilişsel kapitalizminde göçmen işgücünü toplumsal cinsiyet perspektifinden tartışmaktadır.
Kapsamlı bir literatür incelemesine dayanan bu çalışma, İkinci Dünya Savaşını izleyen ilk dönemde Batı Avrupa ülkelerinde imalat sanayiinde, madencilikte, hizmetlerde ve tarımda ihtiyaç duyulan vasıfsız işgücünün cinsiyet dağılımını ele almakta ve erkeklerin göçü olarak algılanan bu dönemde göçmen kadın işçilerin varlığına ışık tutmaktadır. 1973 ekonomik krizinin ardından gelen kapitalizmin neoliberal yeniden yapılanma dönemi aynı zamanda sosyoekonomik ve demografik değişikliklere bağlı olarak yeniden üretim krizinin yaşandığı dönemdir. Yeniden üretim krizini, bir diğer deyişle bakım açığını aşmak için göçmen kadınların ev ve bakım işlerinde istihdam edilmesi, göçmen kadın işgücüne talebi artırmıştır. Son dönemde bilişsel kapitalizmin ihtiyaçlarına uygun olarak yüksek vasıflı işgücünün göçü ön plana çıkmaktadır. Gelişmiş ülkeler özellikle bilişim ve iletişim ile sağlık sektörlerinde vasıflı işgücünün göçünü teşvik etmekte, eğitim düzeyi yüksek kadınlar da kendi ülkelerindeki eşitsiz koşullara tepkileri ölçüsünde göç sürecine katılmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Antonopoulos R. ve Hirnway I. (2010) “Unpaid Work and the Economy” R. Antonopoulos ,I. Hirnway (Eds.), Unpaid Work and the Economy içinde London: Palgrave-Macmillan, 1-21.
  • Babataş, G. (2007) “Beyin Göçü ve Türkiye’nin Sosyo-Ekonomik Yapısının Beyin Göçüne Etkisi”, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 7 (28), 263-266.
  • Badgett M.V. L. ve Folbre N. (1999) “Assigning care: Gender norms and economic outcomes”, International Labour Review, Vol. 138, No.3, 311-326.
  • Braeg D. (2012) "Wilder Streik - das ist Revolution" der Streik der Arbeiterinnen von Pierburg in Neuss 1973, Berlin: Die Buchmacherei.
  • Campani G. (1993) “Labour Markets and Family Networks: Filipino Women in Italy”, Rudolp H., Morokvasic M. (eds.) International Migration in the Early 1990s içinde, Berlin: edition sigma.
  • Castles S. ve Godula K. (1973) Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, London: Oxford University Press.
  • Castles S. (1984) Here For Good: Western Europe’s New Ethnic Minorities, London:Pluto Press.
  • Castles S. ve Miller M.J. (1998) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in The Modern World, Hong Kong: The Guilford Press.
  • Castles, S., Cubas, M. A., Kim, C. ve Özkul, D. (2012) “Irregular migration: causes, patterns, and strategies”, I. Omelaniuk (Ed.), Global perspectives on migration and development içinde, New York: IOM Springer, 117–151.
  • Castles S., De Haas H. ve Miller M.J. (2014) The Age of Migration, Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan
  • Chen D.H.C. ve Dahlman C. J. (2006) The Knowledge Economy, The Kam Methodology And World Bank Operations, Washington DC: WBI.
  • Christou A. ve Kofman E. (2022) Gender and Migration, IMISCOE Short Reader. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-91971-9
  • Coffey W.J. (1996) “The ‘Newer’ International Division of Labour”, Lever W. ve Daniels P. (eds) The Global Economy in Transition içinde London: Longman, 40-61.
  • Çengel, Y. (2009), “Beyin Gücü ve Beyin Göçü: Madalyonun Diğer Yüzü”, Eğitime Bakış, 5 (13), 7-13.
  • Delgado Wise R. (2022) Imperialism, Unequal Exchange and Labour Export, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356289674
  • Docquier, F., Lindsay Lowell B. ve Marfouk A. (2007), “A Gendered Assessment of the Brain Drain”, IZA Discussion Paper No. 3235, Bonn: IZA.
  • Docquier, F., Marfouk A., Salomone S. ve Sekkat K. (2012), “Are Skilled Women More Migratory than Skilled Men?”, World Development, 40(2): 251–265.
  • Dumont, J. C., Martin J.P. ve Spielvogel G. (2007), “Women on the Move: The Neglected Gender Dimension of the Brain Drain”, IZA Discussion Paper No. 2920, Bonn: IZA.
  • Ehrenreich, B. ve Hochschild A.R. (2003) Global Women, Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, New York: Metropolitan Books.
  • Elveren A. Y. ve Toksöz G. (2018), “Türkiye’de Beyin Göçü Yazını ve Bir Alan Araştırması”, Karadoğan E. vd. (yay. haz.) Gürhan Fişek’in İzinde Ortak Emek ve Ortak Eylem içinde, Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
  • Elveren A. Y. ve Toksöz G. (2019), “Hidden gender dimensions of the brain drain: the case of Turkey”, New Perspectives on Turkey, 60, 33–59.
  • Esping-Andersen G. (2011) The Incomplete Revolution, Cambridge, Malden: Polity Press.
  • Folbre N. (2006) “Measuring Care: Gender, Empowerment, and the Care Economy” Journal of Human Development, 7(2), July 2006, 183-199.
  • Foster, J. B., McChesney R.W. ve Jonna J. (2011) “The Global Reserve Army of Labour and the New Imperialism”, Monthly Review 63, no. 6, 1–15.
  • Fraser N. (2016) “Contradicitons of Capital and Care”, New Left Review 100, July August 2016. 99-117.
  • Godin B. (2006) “The Knowledge-Based Economy: Conceptual Framework or Buzzword?” Technology Transfer 31, 17-30.
  • Grigoleit-Richter G. (2017) “Highly skilled and highly mobile? Examining gendered and ethnicised labour market conditions for migrant women in STEM professions in Germany”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43:16, 2738-2755.
  • Güngör, N. D. (2014) “The Gender Dimension of Skilled Migration and Return Intentions: Implications for Home Countries”, Conference: Harnessing Knowledge on the Migration of Highly Skilled Women, IOM: Geneva, 117–125.
  • https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269410864_The_gender_dimension_of_skilled_migration_and_return_intentions_Implications_for_home_countries
  • Güngör, N. D. ve Tansel A. (2008), “Brain Drain from Turkey: The Case of Professionals Abroad”, International Journal of Manpower, 29(4), 323–347.
  • Hartmann H. (1992) “Marksizm’le Feminizmin Mutsuz Evliliği”, Savran G. ve Tuna N. (der) Kadının Görünmeyen Emeği içinde, İstanbul: Kardelen Yayınları, 128-170.
  • Hochschild A. R. (2003) “Love and Gold” Ehrenreich B. ve Hochschild A. R. (eds.) Global Women, Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy içinde New York: Metropolitan Books, 15-30.
  • Hödl G., Husa K., Parnreiter C., Stacher I. (2000) “Internationale Migration: Globale Herausforderung des 21. Jahrhunderts?”, Internationale Migration, Frankfurt/Wien: Brandes&Apsel/Südwind.
  • ILO (2002) Transformation and Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, Geneva: ILO. Isaksen L.W. , Uma Devi S. ve Hochschild A.R. (2008) Global Care Crisis : A Problem of Capital, Care Chain, or Commons?, American Behavioral Scientist, 52: 405.
  • Kalfa-Topateş A., Topateş H. ve Durmaz N. (2018) “Özgürlük Arayışında “Mecbur İnsan” Olmak: Denizli İşgücü Piyasasında İranlı Mülteciler”, Çalışma ve Toplum, 59(4), 2015-2045.
  • Kiely R. (2008) “Global Shift: Industrialization and Development”, Desai V. ve Potter R.B. (eds) The Companion to Development Studies içinde London: Hodder Education, 183-186.
  • Kofman E. (1999) “Birds of passage: a decade later: gender and immigration in the European Union”, International Migration Review 33, 269-99.
  • Kofman E. (2000) "The Invisibility of Skilled Female Migrants and Gender Relations in Studies of Skilled Migration in Europe" International Journal of Population Geography, 6 (1), 45-59.
  • Kofman E., Phizacklea A., Raghuram P. ve Sales R. (2000) Gender and International Migration in Europe, London, New York: Routledge.
  • Kofman E. (2007) “The Knowledge Economy, Gender and Stratified Migrations” Studies in Social Justice Volume 1, Issue 2.
  • Kofman E. ve Raghuram P. (2015) Gendered Migrations and Global Social Reproduction, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Lipietz A. (1985) The World Crisis: the globalisation of the general crisis of Fordism, April 1985, IDS Bulletin 16(2), https://core.ac.uk/reader/286045850
  • Lucarelli S., Vercellone C. (2013) The Thesis of Cognitive Capitalism. New Research Perspectives. An Introduction, Knowledge Cultures, 1 (N.4), s.15-27
  • https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282155242_The_Thesis_of_Cognitive_Capitalism_New_Research_Perspectives_An_introduction
  • Mackintosh M. (1991) “Gender and Economics, The Sexual Division of Labour and the Subordination of Women”, Young K., Wolkowitz C. ve Mc Cullagh R. (eds.) Of Marriage and the Market, Women’s Subordination Internationally and its Lessons içinde London: Routledge
  • Nejad, M. N. (2013) “Institutionalized Inequality and Brain Drain: An Empirical Study of the Effects of Women’s Rights on the Gender Gap in High-Skilled Migration”, IZA Discussion Paper No. 7864, Bonn: IZA.
  • Nejad N. M. ve Young A. T. (2014) Female Brain Drains and Women’s Rights Gaps: A Gravity Model Analysis of Bilateral Migration Flows, IZA Discussion Paper No. 8067, Bonn: IZA.
  • OECD (2008) The Global Competition for Talent Mobility of the Highly Skilled, Executive Summary, http://www.oecd.org/sti/stpolicy/talent
  • OECD (2015) International Migration Outlook 2015, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en#page4
  • OECD (2017), OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2017: The digital transformation, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264268821-en
  • OECD (2022) International Migration Outlook 2022, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2022_30fe16d2-en#page186
  • Olssen M. ve Peters M. A. (2005) “Neoliberalism, higher education and the knowledge economy: from the free market to knowledge capitalism”, Journal of Education Policy, 20:3, 313-345.
  • Ono, H. ve Piper N. (2004) “Japanese Women Studying Abroad: The Case of the United States”, Women’s Studies International Forum, 27(2): 101–118.
  • Parrenas R. S. (2000) “Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers and the International Division of Reproductive Labor”, Gender and Society, 14 (4 ), 560-580.
  • Phizacklea A. (1983) “In the Front Line” Annie Phizacklea (ed), One Way Ticket, Migration and Female Labour içinde London, Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  • Raghuram, P. (2009), “Situating Women in the Brain Drain Discourse: Discursive Challenges and Opportunities”, Stalford, H., S. Currie ve S. Velluti (eds.), Gender and Migration in 21st century Europe içinde, Oxford and New York: Routledge, 85–106.
  • Raghuram P. ve Sondhi G. (2019) Migration qualifizierter Frauen in der EU https://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/kurzdossiers/292966/migration-qualifizierter-frauen-in-der-eu
  • Rizvi F. (2005) “Rethinking “Brain Drain” in the Era of Globalisation”, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 25:2, 175-192, DOI: 10.1080/02188790500337965
  • Ruyssen I. ve Salomone S. (2018) “Female Migration: A Way out of Discrimination?” Journal of Development Economics 130, 224–241.
  • Simonazzi A. (2008) Care Regimes and National Employment Models, Working Paper n.113, Roma: Universita Degli Studi Di Roma.
  • Standing, G. (2011) The precariat, New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Toksöz G. (1991) “Ja sie kämpfen - und sogar mehr als die Männer” Immigrantinnen- Fabrikarbeit und gewerkschaftliche Interessenvertretung, Berlin: VWB.
  • Toksöz G. (2006) Uluslararası Emek Göçü, İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Toksöz G. (2021) Emanet Emek - Göç Yollarında Kadınlar, Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları.
  • Trimikliniotis, N., ve Fulias-Sourroulla, M. (2013) “Informalisation and flexibilization at work: The migrant woman precariat speaks”, A. Floya, M. Kontos, ve M. Morokvasic-Müller (eds.), Paradoxes of integration: Female migrants in Europe içinde, London: Springer, 59–78.
  • Truong T.D. (1996) “Gender, international migration and social reproduction: Implications for theory, policy, research and networking”, Asian Pacific Migration Journal, 5(1), 27-52.
  • UN (1999) World Survey on the Role of Women in Development: Globalization, Gender and Work, Report of the Security General,
  • https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/1999/1/1999-world-survey-on-the-role-of-women-in-development-globalization-gender-and-work
  • Vatansever Deviren, N. ve Daşkıran F. (2014) “Yurt Dışında Eğitim Görüp Geri Dönen Öğretim Elemanlarının Beyin Göçüne Bakışı: Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi Örneği”, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 41, 1-10.
  • Vercellone, C. (2007) “From Formal Subsumption to General Intellect: Elements for a Marxist Reading of the Hypothesis of Cognitive Capitalism”, Historical Materialism, 15, 13-36.
  • Villosio C. (2015) Migrant Workers In The Healthcare Sector In 5 European Countries: A Quantitative Overview From EU-LFS, WORK-»INT Research Report, https://workint.fieri.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Quantitative-comparative-EU-report.pdf
  • Yılmaz Şener M. (2020) “The gender dimension of return for highly-skilled migrants”, International Journal of Migration and Border Studies, January 2020. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348082920_The_gender_dimension_of_return_for_highly-skilled_migrants
  • Walby S. (1986) Patriarchy at Work, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • WBG (2019) Migration and Brain Drain, Europe and Central Asia Economic Update, Office of the Chief Economist Fall 2019. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/657051570692065211/pdf/Migration-and-Brain-Drain.pdf
  • WHO (2016) Global strategy on human resources for health: Workforce 2030 https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/250368/9789241511131-eng.pdf
  • WHO (2017) Women on the Move: migration, care work and health, Geneva. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/women-on-the-move-migration-care-work-and-health
Toplam 75 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Kadın Araştırmaları
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Gülay Toksöz Bu kişi benim 0000-0003-3461-4193

Yayımlanma Tarihi 22 Eylül 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Cilt: 4 Sayı: 79

Kaynak Göster

APA Toksöz, G. (2023). Kapitalizmin İşgücü Talebi ve Göçmen Kadın Emeği. Çalışma Ve Toplum, 4(79), 3049-3072. https://doi.org/10.54752/ct.1364591
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