TÜRKİYE’NİN LİBYA’YA DAVETLE MÜDAHALESİ: İÇ SAVAŞLARA MÜDAHALE, ETKİSİZ BİR SİLAH AMBARGOSUNU İHLAL VE İÇ HUKUKA AYKIRILIK MESELELERİ

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 26 Sayı: 45, 225 - 259, 23.12.2021

Seyfullah Hasar

Öz

Soğuk Savaşın bitiminden itibaren geçen yaklaşık 30 yıllık süre içerisinde, devletlerin diğer devletlerde cereyan eden iç çatışmalara bu devletlerin hükümetlerinin isteği üzerine askeri müdahalede bulunduğu en az 47 vaka vardır. Bir devlette o devletin hükümetinin rızası ile kuvvet kullanmak kural olarak devletler arası kuvvet kullanma yasağı bakımından büyük bir sorun teşkil etmezken, bir iç çatışma veya iç savaşla mücadele etmek zorunda kalan bir hükümetin elini muhaliflere karşı güçlendirmek amacıyla dışarıdan askeri yardım isteme hakkının olup olmadığı tartışmalıdır. Tartışma, bu tür bir yardımın devletlerin siyasi bağımsızlığı ilkesi ve halkların kendi geleceklerini tayin etme hakkı üzerindeki iddia edilen etkilerinden kaynaklanmaktadır.
Türkiye’nin 2020 yılında Libya’daki iç çatışmaya Libya hükümetinin daveti üzerine gerçekleştirdiği askeri müdahale bu tartışmayı oldukça ilgilendirmektedir. Bu müdahale, hem esas aktörler Türkiye ve Libya hem de üçüncü ülkeler bakımından, konuyla ilgili önemli miktarda devlet uygulaması ve opinio juris (uluslararası örf ve adet hukukunun unsurları) örneğinin ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Müdahalenin bu öneminden dolayı makale, müdahalenin hukukiliği konusunda bütün ilgili gerçekleri ve şartları değerlendirip kati bir hükme varma çabasına girmeden, müdahalenin ilgili örf ve adet hukuku bakımından nasıl bir emsal teşkil ettiğini araştırmaktadır.
Bu müdahalenin bir diğer önemi ise konuyu ilgilendiren fakat literatürde yeterince değinilmemiş ve kavramsallaştırılmamış bazı meselelere yol açmasıdır. Makale, bu müdahale bağlamında, bu meseleleri de aydınlatmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bunlardan bir tanesi, bir silah ambargosunun muhalifler lehine ihlal edilmesine karşılık olarak ilgili ambargoya rağmen hükümeti desteklemenin hukuka uygun olup olmadığıdır. Bir diğeri de, müdahaleye rıza gösteren ve müdahaleyi gerçekleştiren devletlerin kendi iç hukuklarına uyup uymamasının bir müdahalenin milletlerarası hukuk bakımından hukukiliğini etkileyip etkilemeyeceğidir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Davetle müdahale, talep üzerine askeri yardım, silah ambargolarını ihlal, milletlerarası hukukun üstünlüğü, kuvvet kullanma

TURKISH INTERVENTION BY INVITATION IN LIBYA: INTERVENTION IN CIVIL WARS, THE VIOLATION OF INEFFECTIVE ARMS EMBARGOES AND NON-COMPLIANCE WITH DOMESTIC LAW

Öz

In the three decades since the end of the Cold War, there have been at least 47 occasions where States militarily intervened in the internal conflicts of other States at the request of their beleaguered governments. While using force in another State with the consent of its government do not in principle present an immediate challenge to the prohibition on the use of force between States, it is controversial whether a government challenged by an internal conflict or civil war can request foreign military assistance in order to bolster its hand against the opposition. This is due to the alleged implications of such assistance for the principle of the political independence of States and the right to self-determination of peoples.
Turkey’s 2020 intervention in the Libyan conflict at the invitation of the Libyan government reveals highly relevant and ample evidence of State practice and opinio juris – components of customary international law – on the part of both the protagonists, Turkey and Libya, and third States, with regard to this controversy. Given its such importance, this article aims to assess the precedential value of this intervention for the purpose of contributing to determining the state of customary law on the subject, without necessarily attempting to assess all the relevant facts and circumstances in order to reach a conclusive judgement on the lawfulness of the intervention.
Another significance of this intervention is that it gives rise to some questions pertinent to the subject but under-addressed and under-conceptualised in the literature. Against the backdrop of this intervention, this article also aims to shed light on these questions. One of them is whether supporting a government in violation of an arms embargo in response to a prior breach of the embargo in support of the opposition can be deemed lawful. The other is whether the compliance of the consenting or the intervening State with its own domestic law matters for the purpose of the legality of an intervention under international law.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Intervention by invitation, military assistance on request, compliance with arms embargoes, supremacy of international law, use of force

Kaynakça

• ‘Erdogan: Turkey will Increase Military Support to GNA if Needed’ (Al Jazeera, 22 December 2019) <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/haftar-forces-seize-ship-libya-coast-turkish-crew-191222105449299.html>.
• ‘Libya’s War: Who is Supporting Whom’ (Al Jazeera, 9 January 2020) <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/libya-war-supporting-200104110325735.html>.
• ‘Mitsotakis, Anastasiades and Netanyahu: The Turkish Decision to Deploy Troops in Libya Presents a Dangerous Threat to Regional Stability’ (ANA-MPA, 3 January 2020) <https://www.amna.gr/en/article/419459/Mitsotakis--Anastasiades-and-Netanyahu-The-Turkish-decision-to-deploy-troops-in-Libya-presents-a-dangerous-threat-to-regional-stability>.
• ‘No Deal: Libya’s Parliament Votes Against Turkish Involvement’ (Al Jazeera, 4 January 2020) <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/deal-libya-parliament-votes-turkish-involvement-200104145706382.html>.
• ‘Turkey Begins Deploying Troops to Libya, Says Erdogan’ (DW, 5 January 2020) <https://p.dw.com/p/3Vk7K>.
• ‘Turkey to Send Troops To Libya Amid Warnings From Russia’ (RFE/RL, 27 December 2019) <https://www.rferl.org/a/erdogan-turkish-troops-libya-russia-opposition/30346782.html>.
• ‘Turkish Navy Orders Israeli Ship out of Cyprus’s Waters’ (Al Jazeera, 15 December 2019) <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/turkish-navy-deports-israeli-ship-cyprus-territorial-waters-191215062253581.html>.
• ‘UN Envoy: ‘Libya a Textbook Example of Foreign Intervention” (Al Jazeera, 23 May 2019) <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/05/envoy-libya-textbook-foreign-intervention-190523164926246.html>.
• AKANDE, Dapo and VERMEER, Zachary, ‘The Airstrikes against Islamic State in Iraq and the Alleged Prohibition on Military Assistance to Governments in Civil Wars’ (EJIL: Talk!, 2 February 2015) <https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-airstrikes-against-islamic-state-in-iraq-and-the-alleged-prohibition-on-military-assistance-to-governments-in-civil-wars/>.
• BANNELIER, Karine and CHRISTAKIS, Theodore, ‘Under the UN Security Council’s Watchful Eyes: Military Intervention by Invitation in the Malian Conflict’ (2013) 26 LJIL 855. BANNELIER-CHRISTAKIS, Karine, ‘Military Interventions against ISIL in Iraq, Syria and Libya, and the Legal Basis of Consent’ (2016) 29 LJIL 743.
• BROWNLIE, Ian, International Law and the Use of Force by States (OUP 1963).
• Charter of the United Nations (adopted 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS 16.
• COCKAYNE, James, MIKULASCHEK, Christoph and PERRY, Chris, ‘The United Nations Security Council and Civil War: First Insights from a New Dataset’ (International Peace Institute, September 2010).
• CORTEN, Olivier, The Law Against War: The Prohibition on the Use of Force in Contemporary International Law (Christopher Sutcliffe tr, Hart Publishing 2010).
• DE WET, Erika, Military Assistance on Request and the Use of Force (OUP 2020).
• DEEKS, Ashley S, ‘Consent to the Use of Force and International Law Supremacy’ (2013) 54 HarvIntlLJ 1.
• DINSTEIN, Yoram, Non-International Armed Conflicts in International Law (CUP 2014).
• DOSWALD-BECK, Louise, ‘The Legal Validity of Military Intervention by Invitation of the Government’ (1986) 56 BYIL 189.
• FERRO, Luca, ‘The Doctrine of ‘Negative Equality’ and the Silent Majority of States’ (2021) 8 JUFIL 4.
• FOX, Gregory H, ‘Intervention by Invitation’ in Marc Weller (ed), The Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law (OUP 2015).
• French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs, ‘Joint Statement by the High Representative of the European Union for Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom’ (7 January 2020) <https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/libya/news/2020/article/libya-joint-statement-by-the-high-representative-of-the-european-union-for>.
• GILL, Terry D, ‘Legal and Some Political Limitations on the Power of the UN Security Council to Exercise its Enforcement Powers Under Chapter VII of the Charter’ (1995) 26 NYIL 33.
• GILL, Terry D, ‘Military Intervention with the Consent or at the Invitation of a Government’ in Terry D Gill and Dieter Fleck, The Handbook of the International Law of Military Operations (2nd edn, OUP 2015).
• GRAY, Christine, International Law and the Use of Force (4th edn, OUP 2018).
• Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Joint Declaration adopted by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece and the United Arab Emirates’ (11 May 2020) <https://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/statements-speeches/joint-declaration-adopted-by-the-ministers-of-foreign-affairs-of-cyprus-egypt-france-greece-and-the-united-arab-emirates-11052020.html>.
• HIGGINS, Rosalyn, ‘International Law and Civil Conflict’ in Evan Luard (ed), The International Regulation of Civil Wars (New York University Press 1972).
• IIL, ‘Intervention by Invitation’ (Rapporteur: Gerhard Hafner, Session of Naples, 2009) 395.
• IIL, ‘Military Assistance on Request’ (Resolution, Session of Rhodes, 2011).
• ILA, ‘Final Report on Aggression and the Use of Force’ (Sydney Conference, 2018).
• ILA, ‘Final Report on Aggression and the Use of Force’ (Sydney Conference, 2018) 19.
• ILC, ‘Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, With Commentaries’ UN Doc A/56/10 (2001).
• ILC, ‘Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law, with Commentaries’ (2018) UN Doc A/73/10.
• JENNINGS, Robert and WATTS, Arthur (eds), Oppenheim’s International Law (Volume 1, 9th edn, Longman 1996).
• LEİÆ, Johann Ruben and PAULUS, Andreas, ‘Article 103’ in Bruno Simma and others (eds), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary (Volume II, 3rd edn, OUP 2012).
• Libyan Political Agreement (signed 17 December 2015) <https://unsmil.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/Libyan%20Political%20Agreement%20-%20ENG%20.pdf>.
• LIEBLICH, Eliav, ‘Intervention and Consent: Consensual Forcible Intervention in Internal Armed Conflicts as International Agreements’ (2011) 29 BostonUIntlLJ 337.
• MALANCZUK, Pater, Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law (First published in 1970, 7th revised edn, Routledge 1997).
• Memorandum of Understanding Between the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the Government of National Accord-State of Libya on Security and Military Cooperation (signed 27 November 2019) <https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2019/12/20191226-3.pdf>.
• MON, Christopher J Le, ‘Unilateral Intervention by Invitation in Civil Wars: The Effective Control Test Tested’ (2003) 35 NYUJIntlL&Pol 741.
• NGUYEN, Quoc Tan Trung, ‘Rethinking the Legality of Intervention by Invitation: Toward Neutrality’ (2019) 24 JC&SL 201.
• NOLTE, Georg, ‘Intervention by Invitation’, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Last updated January 2010) <https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1702?prd=EPIL>.
• NOLTE, Georg, Eingreifen auf Einladung (With an English Summary, Springer 1999).
• PUSTORINO, Pietro, ‘The Principle of Non-Intervention in Recent Non-International Armed Conflicts’ 53 (2018) QuestIntlL 17.
• ROSCINI, Marco, ‘On the Inherent Character of the Right of States to Self-Defence’ (2015) 4 CJICL 634.
• RUYS, Tom and FERRO, Luca, ‘Weathering the Storm: Legality and Legal Implications of the Saudi-led Military Intervention in Yemen’ (2016) 65 ICLQ 61.
• SCHACHTER, Oscar, ‘The Right of States to Use Armed Force’ (1984) 82 MichLRev 1620.
• SCOTT, Craig and others, ‘A Memorial for Bosnia: Framework of Legal Arguments Concerning the Lawfulness of the Maintenance of the United Nations Security Council’s Arms Embargo on Bosnia and Herzegovina’ (1994) 16 MichJIntlL 1.
• TANCA, Antonio, Foreign Armed Intervention in Internal Conflict (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1993).
• The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Karar No: 1238 (02 January 2020), produced in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey, Sayı: 30997 (3 January 2020) <https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2020/01/20200103-15.pdf> (In Turkish).
• THOMAS, Ann Van Wynen and THOMAS, A J, Non-Intervention: The Law and Its Impact in the Americas (Sothern Methodist University Press 1956).
• Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Statement of the Spokesperson of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Hami Aksoy, in Response to a Question Regarding the Extraordinary Session of the League of Arab States on Libya at the Level of Permanent Representatives’ (31 December 2019) <http://www.mfa.gov.tr/sc_-83_-arap-ligi-konseyi-nin-libya-konulu-toplantisi-hk-sc.en.mfa>.
• TUURA, Heini, ‘Finland’s Changing Stance on Armed Measures: How Does it Correspond to International Law?’ (2018) 87 ActScandJurisGent 154.
• UCDP, ‘Forces of House of Representatives’ <https://ucdp.uu.se/actor/5802>.
• UCDP, ‘Libya: Government’ <https://ucdp.uu.se/conflict/11346>.
• UNGA and UNSC, ‘Identical Letters Dated 13 January 2020 from the Permanent Representative of Iraq to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council’ (17 January 2020) UN Doc A/74/650–S/2020/84.
• UNGA, ‘Letter Dated 26 December 2019 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General’ (27 December 2019) UN Doc A/74/634.
• UNGA, ‘Note Verbale Dated 23 December 2019 from the Permanent Mission of Egypt to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General’ (24 December 2019) UN Doc A/74/628.
• UNSC Res 1970 (26 February 2011) UN Doc S/RES/1970.
• UNSC Res 1973 (17 March 2011) UN Doc S/RES/1973.
• UNSC Res 2216 (14 April 2015) UN Doc S/RES/2216.
• UNSC Res 2259 (23 December 2015) UN Doc S/RES/2259.
• UNSC Res 2509 (11 February 2020) UN Doc S/RES/2509.
• UNSC Res 2510 (12 February 2020) UN Doc S/RES/2510.
• UNSC Res 2542 (15 September 2020) UN Doc S/RES/2542.
• UNSC Res 2570 (16 April 2021) UN Doc S/RES/2570.
• UNSC Res 2571 (16 April 2021) UN Doc S/RES/2571.
• UNSC Verbatim Record (18 November 2019) UN Doc S/PV.8667.
• UNSC Verbatim Record (3 March 2014) UN Doc S/PV.7125.
• UNSC Verbatim Record (30 January 2020) UN Doc S/PV.8710.
• UNSC, ‘Letter Dated 1 April 2020 from the Permanent Representative of Libya to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (2 April 2020) UN Doc S/2020/269.
• UNSC, ‘Letter Dated 22 January 2020 from the Permanent Representative of Germany to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (22 January 2020) UN Doc S/2020/63.
• UNSC, ‘Letter Dated 23 June 2021 from the Permanent Representative of Germany to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (24 June 2021) UN Doc S/2021/595.
• UNSC, ‘Letter Dated 23 March 2020 from the Permanent Representative of Turkey to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (24 March 2020) UN Doc S/2020/227.
• UNSC, ‘Letter Dated 29 November 2019 from the Panel of Experts on Libya Established Pursuant to Resolution 1973 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (9 December 2019) UN Doc S/2019/914.
• UNSC, ‘Letter Dated 8 March 2021 from the Panel of Experts on Libya Established Pursuant to Resolution 1973 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (8 March 2021) UN Doc S/2021/229.
• UNSC, ‘Note Verbale Dated 10 March 2020 from the Permanent Mission of Egypt to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council’ (11 March 2020) UN Doc S/2020/196.
• UNSC, ‘United Nations Support Mission in Libya – Report of the Secretary-General’ (15 January 2020) UN Doc S/2020/41.
• Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331.
• VORRATH, Judith, ‘Implementing and Enforcing UN Arms Embargoes: Lessons Learned from Various Conflict Contexts’ (SWP Comment, No.23, May 2020).