The Nexus Between Tourism, Environmental Degradation and Economic Growth

Öz

This study analyzes the impact of tourism on environmental degradation for 32 OECD countries employing panel estimation techniques taking into consideration cross-sectional dependence. The test results demonstrate that tourism and economic growth enhance CO2 emissions in these countries. The Emirmahmutoglu-Kose panel Granger causality test show that unidirectional association running from tourism to CO2 emissions exists in OECD countries. For individual countries, bidirectional association between tourism and CO2 emissions for Canada, a unidirectional association from tourism to CO2 emissions for Chile, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, and United States exists. Bidirectional relationship is also confirmed between tourist arrivals and GDP for Austria, Germany, and Slovak Republic. Moreover, unidirectional causality is found from tourist arrivals to GDP for Colombia, Latvia, Netherlands, Poland, and Spain.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Tourism
• CO2 emissions
• OECD countries
• Cross-sectional dependence
• Emirmahmutoglu-Kose panel Granger causality test

Kaynakça

1. Akadiri, S. S., & Akadiri, A. C. (2019). Examining the causal relationship between tourism, exchange rate, and economic growth in tourism island states: evidence from second- generation panel. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 1-16.
2. Akadiri, S. S., Alola, A. A., & Uzuner, G. (2020a). Economic policy uncertainty and tourism: evidence from the heterogeneous panel. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(20), 2507-2514.
3. Akadiri, S. S., Lasisi, T. T., Uzuner, G., & Akadiri, A. C. (2020b). Examining the causal impacts of tourism, globalization, economic growth and carbon emissions in tourism island territories: bootstrap panel Granger causality analysis. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(4), 470-484.
4. Alam, M. S., & Paramati, S. R. (2016). The impact of tourism on income inequality in developing economies: Does Kuznets curve hypothesis exist?. Annals of Tourism Research, 61, 111-126.
5. Alola, A. A., Eluwole, K. K., Alola, U. V., Lasisi, T. T., & Avci, T. (2019). Environmental quality and energy import dynamics. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 31, 665– 682.
6. Aslan, A. (2014). Tourism development and economic growth in the Mediterranean countries: Evidence from panel Granger causality tests. Current issues in Tourism, 17(4), 363-372.
7. Azam, M., Alam, M. M., & Hafeez, M. H. (2018). Effect of tourism on environmental pollution: Further evidence from Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Journal of cleaner production, 190, 330-338.
8. Balaguer, J., & Cantavella-Jorda, M. (2002). Tourism as a longrun economic growth factor: the Spanish case. Applied economics, 34(7), 877-884.

9. Balli, E., Sigeze, C., Manga, M., Birdir, S., & Birdir, K. (2019). The relationship between tourism, CO2 emissions and economic growth: a case of Mediterranean countries. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 24(3), 219-232.
10. Becken, S. (2013). A review of tourism and climate change as an evolving knowledge domain. Tourism Management Perspectives, 6, 53-62.
11. Becken, S., & Patterson, M. (2006). Measuring national carbon dioxide emissions from tourism as a key step towards achieving sustainable tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(4), 323–338.
12. Becken, S., & Simmons, D. G. (2002). Understanding energy consumption patterns of tourist attractions and activities in New Zealand. Tourism Management, 23(4), 343–354.
13. Ben Jebli, M., & Hadhri, W. (2018). The dynamic causal links between CO2 emissions from transport, real GDP, energy use and international tourism. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 25(6), 568-577.
14. Brahmasrene, T., & Lee, J. W. (2017). Assessing the dynamic impact of tourism, industrialization, urbanization, and globalization on growth and environment in Southeast Asia. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 24(4), 362-371.
15. Castro-Nuño, M., Molina-Toucedo, J. A., & Pablo-Romero, M. P. (2013). Tourism and GDP: A meta-analysis of panel data studies. Journal of Travel research, 52(6), 745-758.
16. Cortes-Jimenez, I., & Pulina, M. (2010). Inbound tourism and long-run economic growth. Current Issues in Tourism, 13(1), 61-74.
17. De Vita, G., Katircioglu, S., Altinay, L., Fethi, S., & Mercan, M. (2015). Revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in a tourism development context. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(21), 16652-16663.
18. Demiroz, D. M., & Ongan, S. (2005). The contribution of tourism to the long-run Turkish economic growth. Ekonomický časopis, 9, 880-894.
19. Dogan, E. (2017). CO2 Emissions, Real GDP, Renewable Energy and Tourism: Evidence from Panel of the Most-Visited Countries, Statistika, 97 (3): 63-76.
20. Dogan, E., & Aslan, A. (2017). Exploring the relationship among CO2 emissions, real GDP, energy consumption and tourism in the EU and candidate countries: Evidence from panel models robust to heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 77, 239-245.
21. Dogan, E., Seker, F., & Bulbul, S. (2017). Investigating the impacts of energy consumption, real GDP, tourism and trade on CO2 emissions by accounting for cross-sectional dependence: A panel study of OECD countries. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(16), 1701-1719.
22. Dogru, T., & Bulut, U. (2018). Is tourism an engine for economic recovery? Theory and empirical evidence. Tourism Management, 67, 425-434.
23. Dogru, T., Marchio, E. A., Bulut, U., & Suess, C. (2019). Climate change: Vulnerability and resilience of tourism and the entire economy. Tourism Management, 72, 292-305.
24. Dritsakis, N. (2004). Tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: an empirical investigation for Greece using causality analysis. Tourism economics, 10(3), 305-316.
25. Eberhardt, M., & Teal, F. (2010). Productivity Analysis in Global Manufacturing Production. Economics Series Working Papers, 515, University of Oxford, Department of Economics.
26. Eluwole, K. K., Saint Akadiri, S., Alola, A. A., & Etokakpan, M. U. (2020). Does the interaction between growth determinants a drive for global environmental sustainability? Evidence from world top 10 pollutant emissions countries. Science of The Total Environment, 705, 135972.
27. Emirmahmutoglu, F., & Kose, N. (2011). Testing for Granger causality in heterogeneous mixed panels. Economic Modelling, 28(3), 870-876.
28. Eyuboglu, K., & Uzar, U. (2019). The impact of tourism on CO2 emission in Turkey. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-15.
29. Fang, Y., Yin, J., & Wu, B. (2018). Climate change and tourism: A scientometric analysis using CiteSpace. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(1), 108-126.
30. Fonseca, N., & Sánchez Rivero, M. (2020). Granger Causality between Tourism and Income: A Meta-regression Analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 59(4), 642-660.
31. Gössling, S. (2000). Sustainable tourism development in developing countries: Some aspects of energy use. Journal of sustainable tourism, 8(5), 410-425.
32. Gössling, S. (2002). Global environmental consequences of tourism. Global environmental change, 12(4), 283-302.
33. Gössling, S., Hansson, C. B., Hörstmeier, O., & Saggel, S. (2002). Ecological footprint analysis as a tool to assess tourism sustainability. Ecological Economics, 43(2), 199–211.
34. Gössling, S., Peeters, P., Ceron, J. P., Dubois, G., Patterson, T., & Richardson, R. B. (2005). The eco-efficiency of tourism. Ecological economics, 54(4), 417-434.
35. Gulistan, A., Tariq, Y. B., & Bashir, M. F. (2020). Dynamic relationship among economic growth, energy, trade openness, tourism, and environmental degradation: fresh global evidence. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-11.
36. Gunduz, L., & Hatemi-J, A. (2005). Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis valid for Turkey?. Applied Economics Letters, 12(8), 499-504.
37. Işik, C., Doğan, E., & Ongan, S. (2017). Analyzing the tourism– energy–growth nexus for the top 10 most-visited countries. Economies, 5(4), 40.
38. Isik, C., Dogru, T., & Turk, E. S. (2018). A nexus of linear and nonlinear relationships between tourism demand, renewable energy consumption, and economic growth: Theory and evidence. International Journal of Tourism Research, 20(1), 38-49.
39. Kadir, N., Nayan, S., Noor, A. N. M., & Zakaria, D. A. (2019). Tourism, Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Economic Growth: Evidence from Panel Data. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Future of ASEAN (ICoFA) 2017-Volume 1 (pp. 391-398). Springer, Singapore.
40. Katircioglu, S. T. (2009). Revisiting the tourism-led-growth hypothesis for Turkey using the bounds test and Johansen approach for cointegration. Tourism Management, 30(1), 17-20.
41. Katircioglu, S. T. (2014a). International tourism, energy consumption, and environmental pollution: The case of Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 36, 180-187.
42. Katircioglu, S. T. (2014b). Testing the tourism-induced EKC hypothesis: The case of Singapore. Economic Modelling, 41, 383-391.
43. Katircioglu, S. T., Feridun, M., & Kilinc, C. (2014). Estimating tourism- induced energy consumption and CO2 emissions: The case of Cyprus. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29, 634-640.
44. Katircioglu, S., Gokmenoglu, K. K., & Eren, B. M. (2018). Testing the role of tourism development in ecological footprint quality: evidence from top 10 tourist destinations. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(33), 33611-33619.
45. Katircioglu, S., Gokmenoglu, K. K., & Eren, B. M. (2019). The role of tourism growth in generating additional energy consumption: empirical evidence from major tourist destinations. Environmental and Ecological Statistics, 26(4), 303-323.
46. Katircioglu, S., Saqib, N., Katircioglu, S., Kilinc, C. C., & Gul, H. (2020). Estimating the effects of tourism growth on emission pollutants: empirical evidence from a small island, Cyprus. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 1-7.
47. Kuo, N. W., & Chen, P. H. (2009). Quantifying energy use, carbon dioxide emission, and other environmental loads from island tourism based on a life cycle assessment approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17(15), 1324–1330.
48. Lean, H. H., & Tang, C. F. (2010). Is the tourism‐led growth hypothesis stable for Malaysia? A note. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(4), 375-378.
49. Lee, J. W., & Brahmasrene, T. (2013). Investigating the influence of tourism on economic growth and carbon emissions: Evidence from panel analysis of the European Union. Tourism management, 38, 69-76.
50. Lee, J. W., & Brahmasrene, T. (2016). Tourism effects on the environment and economic sustainability of sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 23(3), 221-232.
51. Lenzen, M., Sun, Y. Y., Faturay, F., Ting, Y. P., Geschke, A., & Malik, A. (2018). The carbon footprint of global tourism. Nature Climate Change, 8(6), 522-528.
52. León, C. J., Arana, J. E., & Hernández Alemán, A. (2014). CO2 Emissions and tourism in developed and less developed countries. Applied Economics Letters, 21(16), 1169-1173.
53. Mitra, S. K. (2019). Is tourism‐led growth hypothesis still valid?. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(5), 615-624.
54. Narayan, P. K., Narayan, S., Prasad, A., & Prasad, B. C. (2010). Tourism and economic growth: a panel data analysis for Pacific Island countries. Tourism economics, 16(1), 169- 183.
55. Nunkoo, R., Seetanah, B., Jaffur, Z. R. K., Moraghen, P. G. W., & Sannassee, R. V. (2020). Tourism and economic growth: A meta-regression analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 59(3), 404-423.
56. Oh, C. O. (2005). The contribution of tourism development to economic growth in the Korean economy. Tourism management, 26(1), 39-44.
57. Olsthoorn, X. (2001). Carbon dioxide emissions from international aviation: 1950–2050. Journal of Air Transport Management, 7(2), 87-93.
58. Pang, S. F., McKercher, B., & Prideaux, B. (2013). Climate change and tourism: An overview. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 18(1-2), 4-20.
59. Paramati, S. R., Alam, M. S., & Chen, C. F. (2017a). The effects of tourism on economic growth and CO2 emissions: a comparison between developed and developing economies. Journal of Travel Research, 56(6), 712-724.
60. Paramati, S. R., Shahbaz, M., & Alam, M. S. (2017b). Does tourism degrade environmental quality? A comparative study of Eastern and Western European Union. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 50, 1-13. Perles-Ribes, J. F., Ramón-Rodríguez, A. B., Rubia, A., & Moreno-
61. Izquierdo, L. (2017). Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis valid after the global economic and financial crisis? The case of Spain 1957–2014. Tourism Management, 61, 96–109.
62. Pesaran, H. M. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross-sectional dependence in panels. University of Cambridge, Cambridge Working Papers in Economics, 435.
63. Pesaran, M. H. (2006). Estimation and inference in large heterogeneous panels with a multifactor error structure. Econometrica, 74(4), 967-1012.
64. Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross‐section dependence. Journal of applied econometrics, 22(2), 265-312.
65. Pesaran, M. H., & Yamagata, T. (2008). Testing slope homogeneity in large panels. Journal of econometrics, 142(1), 50-93.
66. Qin, Y., Luo, Y., Zhao, Y., & Zhang, J. (2018). Research on relationship between tourism income and economic growth based on meta-analysis. Applied Mathematics and Nonlinear Sciences, 3(1), 105-114.
67. Qureshi, M. I., Hassan, M. A., Hishan, S. S., Rasli, A. M., & Zaman, K. (2017). Dynamic linkages between sustainable tourism, energy, health and wealth: Evidence from top 80 international tourist destination cities in 37 countries. Journal of cleaner production, 158, 143-155.
68. Raza, S. A., Sharif, A., Wong, W. K., & Karim, M. Z. A. (2017). Tourism development and environmental degradation in the United States: Evidence from wavelet-based analysis. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(16), 1768-1790.
69. Saint Akadiri, S., Alola, A. A., & Akadiri, A. C. (2019). The role of globalization, real income, tourism in environmental sustainability target. Evidence from Turkey. Science of the total environment, 687, 423-432.
70. Scott, D. (2011). Why sustainable tourism must address climate change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(1), 17-34.
71. Seetanah, B., Nunkoo, R., Sannassee, R. V., Georges, P., & Jaffur, W. M. Z. R. K. (2017). A meta-analysis of the tourism and economic growth nexus. BEST EN Think Tank XVII: Innovation and Progress in Sustainable Tourism, 180.
72. Shahzad, S. J. H., Shahbaz, M., Ferrer, R., & Kumar, R. R. (2017). Tourism-led growth hypothesis in the top ten tourist destinations: New evidence using the quantile-on-quantile approach. Tourism Management, 60, 223-232.
73. Shakouri, B., Khoshnevis Yazdi, S., & Ghorchebigi, E. (2017). Does tourism development promote CO2 emissions?. Anatolia, 28(3), 444-452.
74. Sharif, A., Afshan, S., & Nisha, N. (2017). Impact of tourism on CO2 emission: evidence from Pakistan. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22(4), 408-421.
75. Shi, H., Li, X., Zhang, H., Liu, X., Li, T., & Zhong, Z. (2019). Global difference in the relationships between tourism, economic growth, CO2 emissions, and primary energy consumption. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-16.
76. Solarin, S. A. (2014). Tourist arrivals and macroeconomic determinants of CO2 emissions in Malaysia. Anatolia, 25(2), 228-241.
77. Tang, C. F., & Abosedra, S. (2014). The impacts of tourism, energy consumption and political instability on economic growth in the MENA countries. Energy Policy, 68, 458-464.
78. Tang, C. F., & Abosedra, S. (2016). Tourism and growth in Lebanon: new evidence from bootstrap simulation and rolling causality approaches. Empirical Economics, 50(2), 679-696.
79. Tang, C. F., & Tan, E. C. (2015). Does tourism effectively stimulate Malaysia’s economic growth?. Tourism management, 46, 158-163.
80. Tang, C. F., Tiwari, A. K., & Shahbaz, M. (2016). Dynamic inter- relationships among tourism, economic growth and energy consumption in India. Geosystem engineering, 19(4), 158-169.
81. Westerlund, J. (2008). Panel cointegration tests of the Fisher effect. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 23(2), 193-233. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2019). Travel & Tourism Economic impact 2019. World travel and tourism council.
82. Wu, T. P., & Wu, H. C. (2019). Tourism and economic growth in Asia: A bootstrap multivariate panel Granger causality. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(1), 87-96.
83. Yorucu, V. (2016). Growth impact of CO2 emissions caused by tourist arrivals in Turkey. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management , 8 (1), 19–37.
84. Zaman, K., Shahbaz, M., Loganathan, N., & Raza, S. A. (2016). Tourism development, energy consumption and Environmental Kuznets Curve: Trivariate analysis in the panel of developed and developing countries. Tourism Management, 54, 275-283.
85. Zhang, L., & Gao, J. (2016). Exploring the effects of international tourism on China’s economic growth, energy consumption and environmental pollution: Evidence from a regional panel analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 53, 225-234.