Araştırma Makalesi
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Yıl 2025, Cilt: 29 Sayı: 2, 817 - 843, 22.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.60002/ebyuhfd.1683198

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Agre, Philip E., “Imagining the Next War: Infrastructural Warfare and the Conditions of Democracy”, 15 Eylül 2001, https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/agre/war.html, E.T. 01.01.2025.
  • Arkin, William M., “The Environmental Threat of Military Operations”, International Law Studies, S. 69, 1996, s. 116-135.
  • Bektaş, Sezercan, “Hukukun Üstünlüğü İlkesinin Avrupa Birliği (UlusÜstü) Hukukuna Aktarımı ve İlkenin Normatif Muhteviyatının Tespiti Sorunu”, Hacettepe Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C.12, S.1, 2022, s. 810-863.
  • Bhat B., Sandeepa, “State Responsibility and International Liability”, International Space Law in the New Space Era: Principles and Challenges içinde, Düz. Dilip Ukey, and Adithya Variath Sandeepa Bhat B., Oxford Academic, Oxford, 2024, s. 105–121.
  • Bingen, Kari A./Johnson, Kaitlyn/Young, Makena/Raymond, John, Space Threat Assessment, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Washington DC, 2023.
  • Çakır, Tuğrul, “Türk Uzay Operasyonlarına İlişkin Kanun’un Hazırlanması Konusunda Öneriler”, Yıldırım Beyazıt Hukuk Dergisi, C. 5, S. 2, 2020, s.175- 196.
  • Eryavuz, Feriha Beyza, “Uzay Hukukundaki Yükümlülük Rejimi Bağlamında Fırlatan Devlet Kavramı ve TURKSAT-5B Uydusu”, İstanbul Medipol Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 9, S. 1, 2022, s. 30-50.
  • Graham, Stephen, “Switching Cities off Urban Infrastructure and US Air Power”, City, C. 9, S. 2, 2005, s. 169-194.
  • Graham, Thomas/Thangavel, Kathiravan/Martin, Anne-Sophie, “Navigating AI-lien Terrain: Legal Liability for Artificial Intelligence in Outer Space”, Acta Astronautica, S. 217, Nisan 2024, s. 197-207.
  • Güldoğan, Mustafa Veysel/Işıklı, Şevki, “Siber Savaşta Mütekabiliyet”, AJIT-e: Academic Journal of Information Technology, S. 51, (Kasım 2022), s. 287 - 319, E.T. 03.07.2024.
  • Hanan, J. Trenton/Fowler, Ethan/Hernandez, Sebastian/Niemczyk, Matthew/Tatar, Unal/Keskin, Omer Faruk, “Analysis of Satellite Systems’ Dependencies and Their Cascading Impacts”, Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium (SIEDS), Charlottesville, VA, ABD, s. 493-498.
  • Hanke, Heinz Marcus, “The 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare — A Contribution to the Development of International Law Protecting Civilians from Air Attack”, International Review of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, C. 33, S. 292, 2010, s. 12-44.
  • Hays, Peter L., “What Should the Space Force Do? Insights from Spacepower Analogies”, Doctrine, and Culture, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Matthew Hersch, Cassandra Steer, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 153-180.
  • İnan Şimşek, Aybüke/Atvur, Senem, “21. Yüzyılda Uluslararası Uzay Rejiminin İnsanlığın Ortak Mirası Temelinde Yeniden İnşası”, Alternatif Politika, C. 13, S. 3, 2021, s. 593-628.
  • Jakhu, Ram S., “Application and Implementation of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty”, XXXX Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space. 1997, s. 442-448.
  • Kıllıoğlu, Mehmet Erkan, “Uzay Hukuku, Uzayda Güvenlik ve Diplomasi”, İletişim ve Diplomasi, S. 12, 2024, s. 91-109. Martinez, Larry F., “The Legal and Policy Dimensions of Cyber-Conflict in Outer Space”, Düz. Y. Bayraktar, S. Alis, Proceedings for the Second Symposium on Space Economy, Space Law and Space Sciences, İstanbul, İstanbul University Press, 2023. s. 111-124.
  • Melzer, Nils, “The Principle of Distinction Between Civilians and Combatants”, The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict içinde, Düz. Andrew Clapham ve Paola Gaeta, Oxford Academic, 2014, s. 296-331.
  • National Air and Space Intelligence Center (U.S.), “Competing in Space, Federal U.S. Documents Collection, 2018. O’Meara, Chris, “Anti-Satellite Weapons and Self-Defence: Law and Limitations”, Düz. L. Lindström, D. Giovannelli, K. Podiņš, D. Štrucl C. Kwan. 2024 16th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Over the Horizon (CyCon), NATO CCDCOE Publications, Tallinn, Estonia, 2024, s. 249-262.
  • Pavur, James/Martinovic, Ivan, “The Cyber-ASAT: On the Impact of Cyber Weapons in Outer Space”, Düz. T. Minárik, S. Alatalu, S. Biondi, M. Signoretti, I. Tolga, G. Visky, 2019 11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Silent Battle, NATO CCD COE Publications, Tallinn, Estonia, 2019, s. 1-18.
  • Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), International Humanitarian Law Databases. International Committee of the Red Cross, 8 Haziran 1977.
  • Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai, Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space, The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), Cenevre, 2019.
  • Robinson, Jana, “Prominent Security Risks Stemming from Space Hybrid Operations”, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Cassandra Steer ve Matthew Hersch, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 229-246.
  • Rodoplu Şahin, Didem/Bebitova, Matluyba, “Uzay Madenciliğine İlişkin Zorluklar ve Potansiyel Çözümleri”, Nişantaşı Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C. 10, S. 1, 2022, s. 171-188.
  • Shue, Henry/Wippman, David, “Limiting Attacks on Dual-Use Facilities Performing Indispensable Civilian Functions”, Cornell International Law Journal, S.35, 2002, s. 559-579.
  • Soroka, Larysa/Kurkova, Kseniia, “Artificial Intelligence and Space Technologies: Legal, Ethical and Technological Issues”, Advanced Space Law, S. 3, 2019, s. 131-139.
  • Steer, Cassandra/Stephens Dale, “International Humanitarian Law and Its Application in Outer Space”, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Cassandra Steer ve Matthew Hersch, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 23-55.
  • Stephens, Dale/Steer, Cassandra, “Conflicts in Space: International Humanitarian Law and Its Application to Space Warfare”, McGill Annals of Air and Space Law, S. 40, 2015, s. 1-32.
  • Swiney, Gabriel, “Saving Lives: The Principle of Distinction and the Realities of Modern War”, International Lawyer, S.39, 2005, s. 733-758.
  • Swope, Clayton/Bingen, Kari A./Young, Makena/ Chang, Madeleine/Songer, Stephanie/ Tammelleo, Jeremy, Space Threat Assessment 2024, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington DC, 2024.
  • Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Washington, London, Moscow, 10 Ekim 1967.
  • Uchitomi, Motoko, “State Responsibility/Liability for ‘National’ Space Activities, Towards Safe and Fair Competition in Private Space Activities”, PROC. COLLOQ. L. OUTER SPACE (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc), 2001, s. 51-60.
  • United Nations, United Nations Juridical Yearbook, United Nations, 1981.
  • Zhou, Wen, “War, Law and Outer Space: Pathways to Reduce the Human Cost of Military Space Operations”, Humanitarian Law & Policy, 15 Ağustos 2023, s. 1-4.

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 29 Sayı: 2, 817 - 843, 22.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.60002/ebyuhfd.1683198

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Agre, Philip E., “Imagining the Next War: Infrastructural Warfare and the Conditions of Democracy”, 15 Eylül 2001, https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/agre/war.html, E.T. 01.01.2025.
  • Arkin, William M., “The Environmental Threat of Military Operations”, International Law Studies, S. 69, 1996, s. 116-135.
  • Bektaş, Sezercan, “Hukukun Üstünlüğü İlkesinin Avrupa Birliği (UlusÜstü) Hukukuna Aktarımı ve İlkenin Normatif Muhteviyatının Tespiti Sorunu”, Hacettepe Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C.12, S.1, 2022, s. 810-863.
  • Bhat B., Sandeepa, “State Responsibility and International Liability”, International Space Law in the New Space Era: Principles and Challenges içinde, Düz. Dilip Ukey, and Adithya Variath Sandeepa Bhat B., Oxford Academic, Oxford, 2024, s. 105–121.
  • Bingen, Kari A./Johnson, Kaitlyn/Young, Makena/Raymond, John, Space Threat Assessment, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Washington DC, 2023.
  • Çakır, Tuğrul, “Türk Uzay Operasyonlarına İlişkin Kanun’un Hazırlanması Konusunda Öneriler”, Yıldırım Beyazıt Hukuk Dergisi, C. 5, S. 2, 2020, s.175- 196.
  • Eryavuz, Feriha Beyza, “Uzay Hukukundaki Yükümlülük Rejimi Bağlamında Fırlatan Devlet Kavramı ve TURKSAT-5B Uydusu”, İstanbul Medipol Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 9, S. 1, 2022, s. 30-50.
  • Graham, Stephen, “Switching Cities off Urban Infrastructure and US Air Power”, City, C. 9, S. 2, 2005, s. 169-194.
  • Graham, Thomas/Thangavel, Kathiravan/Martin, Anne-Sophie, “Navigating AI-lien Terrain: Legal Liability for Artificial Intelligence in Outer Space”, Acta Astronautica, S. 217, Nisan 2024, s. 197-207.
  • Güldoğan, Mustafa Veysel/Işıklı, Şevki, “Siber Savaşta Mütekabiliyet”, AJIT-e: Academic Journal of Information Technology, S. 51, (Kasım 2022), s. 287 - 319, E.T. 03.07.2024.
  • Hanan, J. Trenton/Fowler, Ethan/Hernandez, Sebastian/Niemczyk, Matthew/Tatar, Unal/Keskin, Omer Faruk, “Analysis of Satellite Systems’ Dependencies and Their Cascading Impacts”, Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium (SIEDS), Charlottesville, VA, ABD, s. 493-498.
  • Hanke, Heinz Marcus, “The 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare — A Contribution to the Development of International Law Protecting Civilians from Air Attack”, International Review of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, C. 33, S. 292, 2010, s. 12-44.
  • Hays, Peter L., “What Should the Space Force Do? Insights from Spacepower Analogies”, Doctrine, and Culture, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Matthew Hersch, Cassandra Steer, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 153-180.
  • İnan Şimşek, Aybüke/Atvur, Senem, “21. Yüzyılda Uluslararası Uzay Rejiminin İnsanlığın Ortak Mirası Temelinde Yeniden İnşası”, Alternatif Politika, C. 13, S. 3, 2021, s. 593-628.
  • Jakhu, Ram S., “Application and Implementation of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty”, XXXX Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space. 1997, s. 442-448.
  • Kıllıoğlu, Mehmet Erkan, “Uzay Hukuku, Uzayda Güvenlik ve Diplomasi”, İletişim ve Diplomasi, S. 12, 2024, s. 91-109. Martinez, Larry F., “The Legal and Policy Dimensions of Cyber-Conflict in Outer Space”, Düz. Y. Bayraktar, S. Alis, Proceedings for the Second Symposium on Space Economy, Space Law and Space Sciences, İstanbul, İstanbul University Press, 2023. s. 111-124.
  • Melzer, Nils, “The Principle of Distinction Between Civilians and Combatants”, The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict içinde, Düz. Andrew Clapham ve Paola Gaeta, Oxford Academic, 2014, s. 296-331.
  • National Air and Space Intelligence Center (U.S.), “Competing in Space, Federal U.S. Documents Collection, 2018. O’Meara, Chris, “Anti-Satellite Weapons and Self-Defence: Law and Limitations”, Düz. L. Lindström, D. Giovannelli, K. Podiņš, D. Štrucl C. Kwan. 2024 16th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Over the Horizon (CyCon), NATO CCDCOE Publications, Tallinn, Estonia, 2024, s. 249-262.
  • Pavur, James/Martinovic, Ivan, “The Cyber-ASAT: On the Impact of Cyber Weapons in Outer Space”, Düz. T. Minárik, S. Alatalu, S. Biondi, M. Signoretti, I. Tolga, G. Visky, 2019 11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Silent Battle, NATO CCD COE Publications, Tallinn, Estonia, 2019, s. 1-18.
  • Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), International Humanitarian Law Databases. International Committee of the Red Cross, 8 Haziran 1977.
  • Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai, Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space, The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), Cenevre, 2019.
  • Robinson, Jana, “Prominent Security Risks Stemming from Space Hybrid Operations”, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Cassandra Steer ve Matthew Hersch, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 229-246.
  • Rodoplu Şahin, Didem/Bebitova, Matluyba, “Uzay Madenciliğine İlişkin Zorluklar ve Potansiyel Çözümleri”, Nişantaşı Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C. 10, S. 1, 2022, s. 171-188.
  • Shue, Henry/Wippman, David, “Limiting Attacks on Dual-Use Facilities Performing Indispensable Civilian Functions”, Cornell International Law Journal, S.35, 2002, s. 559-579.
  • Soroka, Larysa/Kurkova, Kseniia, “Artificial Intelligence and Space Technologies: Legal, Ethical and Technological Issues”, Advanced Space Law, S. 3, 2019, s. 131-139.
  • Steer, Cassandra/Stephens Dale, “International Humanitarian Law and Its Application in Outer Space”, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Cassandra Steer ve Matthew Hersch, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 23-55.
  • Stephens, Dale/Steer, Cassandra, “Conflicts in Space: International Humanitarian Law and Its Application to Space Warfare”, McGill Annals of Air and Space Law, S. 40, 2015, s. 1-32.
  • Swiney, Gabriel, “Saving Lives: The Principle of Distinction and the Realities of Modern War”, International Lawyer, S.39, 2005, s. 733-758.
  • Swope, Clayton/Bingen, Kari A./Young, Makena/ Chang, Madeleine/Songer, Stephanie/ Tammelleo, Jeremy, Space Threat Assessment 2024, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington DC, 2024.
  • Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Washington, London, Moscow, 10 Ekim 1967.
  • Uchitomi, Motoko, “State Responsibility/Liability for ‘National’ Space Activities, Towards Safe and Fair Competition in Private Space Activities”, PROC. COLLOQ. L. OUTER SPACE (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc), 2001, s. 51-60.
  • United Nations, United Nations Juridical Yearbook, United Nations, 1981.
  • Zhou, Wen, “War, Law and Outer Space: Pathways to Reduce the Human Cost of Military Space Operations”, Humanitarian Law & Policy, 15 Ağustos 2023, s. 1-4.

Dış Uzayda Gerçekleştirilen Siber Saldırıların Hukuken Değerlendirilmesi

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 29 Sayı: 2, 817 - 843, 22.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.60002/ebyuhfd.1683198

Öz

Uzay faaliyetleri bilişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmelerden etkilenmiştir. Bu etkileşim yapay zekâ destekli sistemler kullanılarak bilimsel gelişime katkı sunulması şeklinde olabildiği gibi kinetik saldırılara alternatif siber saldırıların gelişerek artması şeklinde de olabilmektedir. Bu bağlamda siber saldırılar Dış Uzay Anlaşması kapsamında benimsenmiş olan uzayın barışçıl kullanımı ilkesi karşısında büyük bir risk teşkil etmektedir. Siber saldırıların düşük maliyetli olması, anonim gerçekleştirilmeye elverişli olması, özellikle yapay zekâ destekli sistemler tarafından algoritmik sorun sonucu mu yoksa kasıtlı olarak mı gerçekleştirildiğinin belirlenmesinin oldukça güç olması siber saldırıların uzay faaliyetlerinde teşkil ettiği sorunlardan bazılarıdır. Ayrıca uyduda gerçekleşen kısa süreli işlevsizliklerin siber saldırı mı yoksa uydudaki sistemsel bir bozukluk mu olduğunun tespitinin hemen hemen imkânsız olması, uydular üzerinde siber saldırı tespit edilse dahi bu saldırının hangi amaçla gerçekleştirilmiş olduğunun ve saldırı sonrası hangi zararın doğduğunun belirlenmesi de çok zordur.

Uzayda gerçekleşen siber saldırılara özgü nitelikler dikkate alınarak çalışmada dış uzayda gerçekleştirilen siber saldırıların mevcut anlaşmalar kapsamında analiz edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu bağlamda dış uzayda gerçekleştirilen kinetik saldırıların ve siber saldırıların neler olabileceği incelenmiş, askeri amaçlı uzay faaliyetleri üzerine odaklanılarak astronotun durumu ve hem askeri hem sivil amaçlı kullanılan uyduların durumu ilgili uluslararası anlaşmalar ve insani hukuk kapsamında tartışılmıştır. Devlet yahut devlet dışı aktörler tarafından gerçekleştirilen siber saldırılarda sorumluluğun belirlenerek zararın giderilmesinde hem dış uzayın hem de siber uzayın nitelikleri dikkate alınarak uzayın barışçıl kullanımı için hukuki bir mekanizma oluşturulması gerektiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu bağlamda Birleşmiş Milletler bünyesinde bir tür tahkim merkezinin kurulması önerilmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Agre, Philip E., “Imagining the Next War: Infrastructural Warfare and the Conditions of Democracy”, 15 Eylül 2001, https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/agre/war.html, E.T. 01.01.2025.
  • Arkin, William M., “The Environmental Threat of Military Operations”, International Law Studies, S. 69, 1996, s. 116-135.
  • Bektaş, Sezercan, “Hukukun Üstünlüğü İlkesinin Avrupa Birliği (UlusÜstü) Hukukuna Aktarımı ve İlkenin Normatif Muhteviyatının Tespiti Sorunu”, Hacettepe Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C.12, S.1, 2022, s. 810-863.
  • Bhat B., Sandeepa, “State Responsibility and International Liability”, International Space Law in the New Space Era: Principles and Challenges içinde, Düz. Dilip Ukey, and Adithya Variath Sandeepa Bhat B., Oxford Academic, Oxford, 2024, s. 105–121.
  • Bingen, Kari A./Johnson, Kaitlyn/Young, Makena/Raymond, John, Space Threat Assessment, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Washington DC, 2023.
  • Çakır, Tuğrul, “Türk Uzay Operasyonlarına İlişkin Kanun’un Hazırlanması Konusunda Öneriler”, Yıldırım Beyazıt Hukuk Dergisi, C. 5, S. 2, 2020, s.175- 196.
  • Eryavuz, Feriha Beyza, “Uzay Hukukundaki Yükümlülük Rejimi Bağlamında Fırlatan Devlet Kavramı ve TURKSAT-5B Uydusu”, İstanbul Medipol Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 9, S. 1, 2022, s. 30-50.
  • Graham, Stephen, “Switching Cities off Urban Infrastructure and US Air Power”, City, C. 9, S. 2, 2005, s. 169-194.
  • Graham, Thomas/Thangavel, Kathiravan/Martin, Anne-Sophie, “Navigating AI-lien Terrain: Legal Liability for Artificial Intelligence in Outer Space”, Acta Astronautica, S. 217, Nisan 2024, s. 197-207.
  • Güldoğan, Mustafa Veysel/Işıklı, Şevki, “Siber Savaşta Mütekabiliyet”, AJIT-e: Academic Journal of Information Technology, S. 51, (Kasım 2022), s. 287 - 319, E.T. 03.07.2024.
  • Hanan, J. Trenton/Fowler, Ethan/Hernandez, Sebastian/Niemczyk, Matthew/Tatar, Unal/Keskin, Omer Faruk, “Analysis of Satellite Systems’ Dependencies and Their Cascading Impacts”, Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium (SIEDS), Charlottesville, VA, ABD, s. 493-498.
  • Hanke, Heinz Marcus, “The 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare — A Contribution to the Development of International Law Protecting Civilians from Air Attack”, International Review of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, C. 33, S. 292, 2010, s. 12-44.
  • Hays, Peter L., “What Should the Space Force Do? Insights from Spacepower Analogies”, Doctrine, and Culture, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Matthew Hersch, Cassandra Steer, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 153-180.
  • İnan Şimşek, Aybüke/Atvur, Senem, “21. Yüzyılda Uluslararası Uzay Rejiminin İnsanlığın Ortak Mirası Temelinde Yeniden İnşası”, Alternatif Politika, C. 13, S. 3, 2021, s. 593-628.
  • Jakhu, Ram S., “Application and Implementation of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty”, XXXX Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space. 1997, s. 442-448.
  • Kıllıoğlu, Mehmet Erkan, “Uzay Hukuku, Uzayda Güvenlik ve Diplomasi”, İletişim ve Diplomasi, S. 12, 2024, s. 91-109. Martinez, Larry F., “The Legal and Policy Dimensions of Cyber-Conflict in Outer Space”, Düz. Y. Bayraktar, S. Alis, Proceedings for the Second Symposium on Space Economy, Space Law and Space Sciences, İstanbul, İstanbul University Press, 2023. s. 111-124.
  • Melzer, Nils, “The Principle of Distinction Between Civilians and Combatants”, The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict içinde, Düz. Andrew Clapham ve Paola Gaeta, Oxford Academic, 2014, s. 296-331.
  • National Air and Space Intelligence Center (U.S.), “Competing in Space, Federal U.S. Documents Collection, 2018. O’Meara, Chris, “Anti-Satellite Weapons and Self-Defence: Law and Limitations”, Düz. L. Lindström, D. Giovannelli, K. Podiņš, D. Štrucl C. Kwan. 2024 16th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Over the Horizon (CyCon), NATO CCDCOE Publications, Tallinn, Estonia, 2024, s. 249-262.
  • Pavur, James/Martinovic, Ivan, “The Cyber-ASAT: On the Impact of Cyber Weapons in Outer Space”, Düz. T. Minárik, S. Alatalu, S. Biondi, M. Signoretti, I. Tolga, G. Visky, 2019 11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Silent Battle, NATO CCD COE Publications, Tallinn, Estonia, 2019, s. 1-18.
  • Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), International Humanitarian Law Databases. International Committee of the Red Cross, 8 Haziran 1977.
  • Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai, Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space, The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), Cenevre, 2019.
  • Robinson, Jana, “Prominent Security Risks Stemming from Space Hybrid Operations”, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Cassandra Steer ve Matthew Hersch, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 229-246.
  • Rodoplu Şahin, Didem/Bebitova, Matluyba, “Uzay Madenciliğine İlişkin Zorluklar ve Potansiyel Çözümleri”, Nişantaşı Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C. 10, S. 1, 2022, s. 171-188.
  • Shue, Henry/Wippman, David, “Limiting Attacks on Dual-Use Facilities Performing Indispensable Civilian Functions”, Cornell International Law Journal, S.35, 2002, s. 559-579.
  • Soroka, Larysa/Kurkova, Kseniia, “Artificial Intelligence and Space Technologies: Legal, Ethical and Technological Issues”, Advanced Space Law, S. 3, 2019, s. 131-139.
  • Steer, Cassandra/Stephens Dale, “International Humanitarian Law and Its Application in Outer Space”, War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy, and Ethics içinde, Düz. Cassandra Steer ve Matthew Hersch, Oxford University Press, New York, 2021, s. 23-55.
  • Stephens, Dale/Steer, Cassandra, “Conflicts in Space: International Humanitarian Law and Its Application to Space Warfare”, McGill Annals of Air and Space Law, S. 40, 2015, s. 1-32.
  • Swiney, Gabriel, “Saving Lives: The Principle of Distinction and the Realities of Modern War”, International Lawyer, S.39, 2005, s. 733-758.
  • Swope, Clayton/Bingen, Kari A./Young, Makena/ Chang, Madeleine/Songer, Stephanie/ Tammelleo, Jeremy, Space Threat Assessment 2024, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington DC, 2024.
  • Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Washington, London, Moscow, 10 Ekim 1967.
  • Uchitomi, Motoko, “State Responsibility/Liability for ‘National’ Space Activities, Towards Safe and Fair Competition in Private Space Activities”, PROC. COLLOQ. L. OUTER SPACE (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc), 2001, s. 51-60.
  • United Nations, United Nations Juridical Yearbook, United Nations, 1981.
  • Zhou, Wen, “War, Law and Outer Space: Pathways to Reduce the Human Cost of Military Space Operations”, Humanitarian Law & Policy, 15 Ağustos 2023, s. 1-4.

Legal Assessment of Cyber Attacks in Outer Space

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 29 Sayı: 2, 817 - 843, 22.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.60002/ebyuhfd.1683198

Öz

Information technologies affects space activities. This impact could be seen by AI-implemented developed space technologies. On the other hand, information Technologies have adverse impacts on space activities cosidering cyber attacks. In this context, cyber attacks pose a great risk to the principle of peaceful use of outer space adopted with the Outer Space Treaty. Low-cost, and anonymity of cyber-attacks could be main phenomena to spread cyber-attacks in outer space. On other words, it is very difficult to determine the reason of the problem on a satellite whether it is a result of algorithmic output or it is a result of an intentional cyber attempt. In addition, it is almost impossible to find out the reason for system failure since the reason might be cyber-attacks including disruptions to a network, or malfunctioning software, or hardware. Even if a cyber attack is detected on satellites, it is very difficult to determine purpose of it. Accordingly it is extremely difficult to determine what the real damage occurred by cyber-attack is.

This study aims to analyze cyber attacks in outer space within the scope of existing international agreements. In this context, it assesses kinetic attacks and different types of cyber attacks in outer space. Considering international agreements of space law and humanitarian law, this work discussess military space activities regarding to their risks, the status of astronauts and the status of dual-use satellites acting for both military and civil purposes. It illustrates the significance of establishing a legal mechanism considering the characteristics of both outer space and cyber space for peaceful use of outer space. This work assess issues on determining responsibility and damages caused by cyber attacks carried out by state or non-state actors. In this context, to cope with issues relavent to cyber-attacks and to minimise cyber attacks this research proposes a new type of formal arbitration center in the United Nations context.

Kaynakça

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Toplam 33 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Bilişim ve Teknoloji Hukuku
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Merve Aysegul Kulular 0000-0001-6556-0269

Gönderilme Tarihi 24 Nisan 2025
Kabul Tarihi 15 Eylül 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi 22 Aralık 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 29 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

MLA Kulular, Merve Aysegul. “Dış Uzayda Gerçekleştirilen Siber Saldırıların Hukuken Değerlendirilmesi”. Erzincan Binali Yıldırım Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, c. 29, sy. 2, 2025, ss. 817-43, doi:10.60002/ebyuhfd.1683198.

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