Türkiye-Armenia Relations in Terms of Conflict Resolution, Reconciliation and the Role of Diaspora

Yıl 2024, , 125 - 153, 24.05.2024

Ebru Çoban Öztürk

https://doi.org/10.36542/erma.1430692

Öz

The problems between Turkey and Armenia are treated as different and inactive type of conflict in the literature of conflict studies. Although there is no active conflict between Turkey and Armenia, the active conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia and the role of the Armenian diaspora adds a new dimension. The relations between the two states falls apart from the conflict literature and regional relations and conflict resolution proposals become more complicated. When a strong and additional factor such as diaspora embedded in the situation of active or inactive conflict, negative relations between the neighbors can worsen. Although the Armenian diaspora is a multicultural community with its own differences, it has strong, persistent, and common ideas about the recognition of the 1915 incidents as genocide, the Armenian identity, and the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh. When the diaspora wants to prioritize its own approaches over Armenia's politics, it has the potential to affect Armenia's domestic and foreign policy. In this case, instrumental reconciliation approach can be suggested in conflict resolution and reconciliation literature to develop good neighborly relations. In the instrumental reconciliation, commercial, economic, political, and educational initiatives and proposals can be made to develop mutual trust by focusing on the current developments. However, reconciliation will not be possible without considering the influence of the diaspora and its attitude towards reconciliation approaches. In the study, reconciliation approaches, the reconciliation model that can be applied in the conflict among neighbors and the effect of the diaspora on reconciliation approaches will be examined.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Conflict Resolution, Instrumental Reconciliation, Armenian Diaspora, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia

Çatışma Çözümü, Uzlaşma ve Diasporanın Rolü Açısından Türkiye Ermenistan İlişkileri

Öz

Türkiye ve Ermenistan arasındaki sorunlar, farklı ve aktif olmayan bir çatışma türü olarak yer almaktadır. Bu ilişki türüne Azerbaycan ve Ermenistan arasındaki aktif çatışma ve Ermeni diasporanın rolü eklendiğinde ise mevcut literatüre aykırı olan bir durum ortaya çıkmakta, hem bölgesel ilişkiler hem çatışma çözümü önerileri daha karmaşık hale gelmektedir. Diaspora gibi güçlü ve ek bir etken komşuluk ilişkilerindeki sorunları derinleştirebilmektedir. Ermeni diaspora, kendi içinde farklılıkları olan bir topluluk olsa da 1915 olaylarının soykırım olarak tanınması, Ermeni kimliği ve Dağlık Karabağ’ın durumu konusunda güçlü ve ısrarcı ortak fikirlere sahiptir ve kendi önceliklerini Ermenistan’ın siyasetinden öncelikli tutmak istediğinde Ermenistan’ın iç ve dış politikasını etkileme potansiyeline sahiptir. İyi komşuluk ilişkileri geliştirebilmek için çatışma çözümü ve uzlaşma çalışmaları başlatmak gereklidir. Ancak diasporanın etkisi ve tutumu dikkate alınmadan hakiki ve uzun vadeli uzlaşma gerçekleşemeyecektir. Makalede, olumlu ilişkiler geliştirebilmek için günümüze odaklanan, ticari, iktisadi, siyasi ve eğitime ilişkin girişimler ile iş birliği içeren ve karşılıklı güven geliştirmeye önem veren araçsal uzlaşma yaklaşımı önerilmektedir. Çalışmada, uzlaşma yaklaşımları, üç ülkenin komşuluğunda uygulanabilecek uzlaşma modeli, diasporanın rolü ve uzlaşma yaklaşımlarındaki etkisi incelenecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Çatışma Çözümü, Araçsal Uzlaşma, Ermeni Diaspora, Türkiye, Azerbaycan, Ermenistan

Kaynakça

• Astourian, Stephan H. From Ter-Petrosian to Kocharin: Leadership Change in Armenia, Berkeley Program in Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies Working Paper Series. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
• Bar-Tal, Daniel. "Collective Memory of Physical Violence: Its Contribution to the Culture of Violence." In The Role of Memory in Ethnic Conflict, edited by Ed Cairns, Michael D. Roe, 77-93. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
• Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M. Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
• Burton, John W. Conflict and Communication: The Use of Controlled Communication in International Relations. London: Macmillan, 1969.
• Butler, Kim D. “Defining Diaspora, Refining a Discourse.” Diaspora 10, no 2 (2001): 189-218.
• Chaliand, Ge´rard, Jean-Pierre Rageau, The Penguin Atlas of Diasporas. New York: Penguin, 1997.
• Cheterian, Vicken. “The Uses and Abuses of History: Genocide and the Making of the Karabakh Conflict.” Europe-Asia Studies 70, no 6 (2018): 884-903.
• Clifford, James. “Diasporas.” Cultural Anthropology 9, no 3 (1994): 302-338.
• Cohen, Robin. “Rethinking ‘Babylon’: Iconoclastic conceptions of the diasporic experience.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 21, no 1 (1995): 5-18.
• Cohen, Robin. “Diasporas and the Nation-State: From Victims to Challengers.” International Affairs 72, no 3 (1996): 507-520.
• Cohen, Robin. Global Diasporas: An Introduction. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.
• Çelikpala, Mithat. “Türkiye ve Kafkasya: Reaksiyoner Dış Politikadan Proaktif Ritmik Diplomasiye Geçiş.” Uluslararası İlişkiler 7, no. 25 (2010): 93-126.
• Çoban Öztürk, Ebru. “Tarih, Travma ve Kimlik: Ermeni Diasporada Kimliğin Yeni Nesillere Aktarımı.” Ermeni Araştırmaları, no 52 (2015): 141-167.
• Darby, John. “Violence by Militants.” In The Effects of Violence on Peace Processes, edited by John Darby, 46-60. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2001.
• Devine-Wright, Patrick. "A Theoretical Overview of Memory and Conflict.", In The Role of Memory in Ethnic Conflict, edited by Ed Cairns, Michael D. Roe, 9-33. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
• Dunne, Tim. “Liberalism.” In The Globalisation of World Politics, edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith, 162-181. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Kelman, Herbert C. “Reconciliation From a Social-Psychological Perspective.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, edited by Arie Nadler, Thomas. E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher, 15-32. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
• Kriesberg, Louis. “Coexistence and the Reconciliation of Communal Conflicts.” In The Handbook of Interethnic Coexistence, edited by Eugene Weiner, 182-198. New York: Abraham Fund, 2000.
• Libaridian, Gerard J. “The Changing Self-image of the Armenian in the Ottoman Empire: Rayahs and Revolutionaries.” In The Image of the Armenian in History and Literature, edited by Richard G. Hovannisian, 155-170. Los Angeles: Undena Press, 1981).
• Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller, “Memory and Identity across the Generations: A Case Study of Armenian Survivors and Their Progeny.” Qualitative Sociology 14, no. 1 (1991): 13-38.
• Mitchell, Christopher. The Nature of Intractable Conflict: Resolution in the Twenty First Century. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
• Nadler Arie, Nurit Shnabel. “Instrumental and Socioemotional Paths to Intergroup Reconciliation and the Needs-Based Model of Socioemotional Reconciliation.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, edited by Arie Nadler, Thomas. E. Malloy, Jeffrey D. Fisher, 37-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
• Nadler, Arie. “Intergroup Reconciliation: Definitions, Processes, and Future Directions.” In The Oxford Handbook of Intergroup Conflict, edited by Linda R. Troop, 291-309. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
• Panossian, Razmik. “Homeland-Diaspora Relations and Identity Differences.” In The Armenians Past and Present in the Making of National Identity, edited by Edmund Herzig, Marina Kurkchiyan, 229-243. New York: Routledge, 2005.
• Panossian, Razmik. The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
• Safran, William. “Comparing Diasporas: A Review Essay.” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 8, no 3 (1999): 255-291.
• Shain, Yossi, Aharon Barth. “Diasporas and International Relations Theory.” International Organization 57, no. 3 (2003): 449-479.
• Shain, Yossi. The Frontier of Loyalty: Political Exiles in the Age of the Nation State. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2005.
• Shain, Yossi, Ravinatha P. Aryasinha. “Spoilers or catalysts? The role of diasporas in peace processes.” In Challenges to Peacebuilding: Managing Spoilers during Conflict Resolution, edited by Edward Newman and Oliver Richmond, 105-133. New York: United Nations University Press, 2006.
• Shain, Yossi. Kinship and Diasporas in International Affairs. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2010. Smith, Hazel. “Diasporas in International Conflict.” In Diasporas in Conflict: Peace-Makers or Peace-Wreckers?, edited by Hazel Smith, Paul Stares, 3-16. Hong Kong: United Nations University Press, 2007.
• Stedman, Stephen John. “Negotiation and Mediation in Internal Conflicts,” In The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict, edited by Michael E. Brown, 341-377. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996.
• Stedman, Stephen John. “Spoiler problems in peace processes,” International Security 22, no 2 (1997): 5-53. Suny, Ronald Grigor. “Provisional Stabilities: The Politics of Identities in Post-Soviet Eurasia.” International Security 24, no 3 (1999-2000): 139-178.
• Tölölyan, Khachig. “Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transnational Moment.” Diaspora 5 (1996): 3-36.
• Tölölyan, Khachig. “Armenian Diaspora.” In Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures around the World, edited by Melvin Ember, Carol R. Ember, Ian Skoggard. New York: Springer, 2005.
• Vertovec, Steven. “Three Meanings of ‘Diaspora’, Exemplified among South Asian Religions.” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 6, no 3 (1997): 277-299.
• Volkan, Vamık D. The Need to Have Enemies and Allies: From Clinical Practice to International Relationships. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aranson,1988.
• Volkan, Vamık D. Bloodlines: From Ethnic Pride to Ethnic Terrorism. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,1997. Volkan, Vamık D. “Transgenerational Transmissions and Chosen Traumas: An Aspect of Large-Group Identity.” Group Analysis 34, no. 1 (2001): 79-97.
• Volkan, Vamık D. Blind Trust: Large Groups and Their Leaders in Times of Crisis and Terror. Charlottesville, Virginia: Pitchstone, 2004.
• Volkan, Vamık D. Killing in the Name of Identity: A Study of Bloody Conflicts. Charlottesville, Virginia: Pitchstone, 2006.
• Volkan, Vamık D. Enemies on the Couch: A Psychopolitical Journey through War and Peace. Durham, North Carolina: Pitchstone, 2013.
• Volkan, Vamık D. Psychoanalysis, International Relations, and Diplomacy: A Sourcebook on Large-Group Psychology. London: Karnac Books, 2014.
• Wiebe, Robert H. Who We Are: A History of Popular Nationalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.
• Zahar, Marie-Joëlle. “Reframing the spoiler debate in peace processes.” In Contemporary Peacemaking: Conflict, Violence and Peace Processes, edited by John Darby, Roger Mac Ginty, 114-124. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56194421, erişim tarihi 21.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-56194582, erişim tarihi 21.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-56877649, erişim tarihi 21.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54324772, erişim tarihi 21.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-57549154, erişim tarihi 21.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-62888891, erişim tarihi 25.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cyxyrgvzerqo, erişim tarihi 25.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd12qy9qjk4o, erişim tarihi 25.11.2022.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-62828239, erişim tarihi 29.01.2024.
• BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67655940, erişim tarihi 29.01.2024.
• Euronews,https://tr.euronews.com/2021/09/08/pasinyan-iliskileri-normallestirmek-icin-turkiye-ile-gorusmeye-haz-r-z, erişim tarihi 21.11.2022.
• International Republican Institute “Armenia National Study”, October 27 – November 3, 2007, https://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/2008%20January%2022%20Survey%20of%20Armenian%20Public%20Opinion,%20October%2027-November%203,%202007.pdf, erişim tarihi 24.08.2020.