Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Merkezi/Orta Küçük Asya’nın Kuzeybatı ve Komşu Bölgelerindeki Yollar ve Güzergahlar: Roma’dan Bizans’a, Osmanlı Dönemi’nde 17. Yüzyıla Kadarki Kaderlerine Dair Bazı Yorumlar

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 20, 79 - 98, 25.11.2020
https://doi.org/10.37095/gephyra.742745

Öz

Çalışma, kuzeybatı Asia
Minor'daki (ve merkez/orta bölümlerindeki) Roma'dan Bizans Dönemi'ne kadar olan
yolların gelişimini inceleyerek, Türk döneminde 17. yüzyıla kadar bazı
değişikliklere işaret eder. Uzun mesafeli trafiğin ana güzergâhlarına ilişkin
dikkate değer bir süreklilik vardı, ancak bu güzergahlar, farklı askeri ve
ekonomik odaklara ve ihtiyaçlara karşılık gelecek şekilde ayrıntılı olarak
değişebilir. Yolların tasarım ve yapım teknikleri değişti, ekonomik kaynaklara
bağlı olarak devlet, vagonlar ve at arabalarından yük hayvanlarına kadar olan
değişime harcama yapabiliyordu. Antikçağ’ın sonunda Roma İmparatorluk
Dönemi’nin geniş, taş döşemeli uzun-mesafe yollarının ihmal edilmesi Asia
Minor'daki taşıt trafiğinin kademeli olarak azalmasıyla bağlantılıdır. İ.S. 6.
yüzyıla kadar seyahat ve taşıma, basit kağnı arabaları üzerindeki kısa mesafe
taşımacılığı hariç, binek ve yük hayvanlarına dayanmaktadır. Yollar bu ulaşım
araçlarına uyarlandı, daha dar bir hale geldi ve sarp geçitlerde
basamaklandırıldı.

7. yüzyıldan itibaren
doğu eyaletlerinin kaybedilmesinin ardından ve Anadolu'nun neredeyse yıllık
gerçekleşen Arap istilaları sırasında, Bizanslılar Roma Dönemi'nin ve Geç Antik
Çağ'ın ana yollarından kısmen farklı olan, ancak çoğunlukla Roma seleflerinden
miras kalan yolları seçti. Asia Minor boyunca ana yollar genellikle kabul
edilebilir bir düzen içinde tutuldu, ancak çok az yeni yol inşa edildi.





Selçuklu fethinden sonra
yollar tekrardan emniyetsiz bir duruma geldi. Ana iletişim hatları en azından
Bizans kontrolü altındaki bölgelerde değişmedi. Osmanlılar, Bizanslılar'ın
askeri seferler ve ticaret için kullandıkları yolların çoğunu devraldı. Yine
de, en azından sınırlı sayıya sahip tamamen yeni yol inşa etmeye hazır
oldukları anlaşılıyor. Bina teknikleri aşağı yukarı Bizans seleflerinin
örneklerini izledi.

Kaynakça

  • M. Adak, Küçük Asya’da Roma İmparatorluğu Dönemi’nde Ulaşım, İletişim ve Taşımacılık / Travel, Communication and Transportation in Asia Minor During the Roman Imperial Period, in: O. Tekin (ed.), Hellenistik ve Roma Dönemlerinde Anadolu. Krallar, İmparatorlar, Kent Devletleri / Hellenistic and Roman Anatolia. Kings, Emperors, City States, İstanbul 2019, 432-448.
  • A. Avramea, Land and Sea Communications, Fourth-Fifteenth Century, in: A. E. Laiou (ed.), The Economic History of Byzantium, I, Washington, D.C., 2002, 57-90.
  • K. Belke, mit Beiträgen von M. Restle, Galatien und Lykaonien, Wien 1984 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 4).
  • K. Belke, Prokops De aedificiis, Buch V, zu Kleinasien, Antiquité Tardive 8, 2000, 115-125.
  • K. Belke, Verkehrsmittel und Reise- bzw. Transportgeschwindigkeiten zu Lande im Byzantinischen Reich, in: E. Kislinger – J. Koder – A. Külzer (eds.), Handelsgüter und Verkehrswege. Aspekte der Warenversorgung im östlichen Mittelmeerraum (4. bis 15. Jahrhundert). Akten des Internationalen Symposions Wien, 19.-22. Oktober 2005, Wien 2010, 45-58 (Veröffentlichungen zur Byzanzforschung 18 = ÖAW, phil.-hist. Kl., Denkschriften 388).
  • K. Belke, Byzanz und die Anfänge des rumseldschukischen Staates. Bemerkungen zur Chronologie von Anna Komnēnēs „Alexias“ in den Jahren 1084–1093, Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik 61, 2011, 65-79.
  • K. Belke, Bithynien und Hellespont in der Tabula Peutingeriana, in: A. Külzer – M. St. Popović (eds.), Space, Landscapes and Settlements in Byzantium: Studies in Historical Geography of the Eastern Mediterranean, Novi Sad – Vienna 2017, 51–73.
  • K. Belke, Bithynien und Hellespont, Wien 2020 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 13).
  • K. Belke – N. Mersich, Phrygien und Pisidien, Wien 1990 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 7)
  • C. M. Brand, Tzachas, The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium III 2134.
  • A. Bryer, The Means of Agricultural Production: Muscles and Tools, in: A. E. Laiou (ed.), The Economic History of Byzantium I, Washington, D.C. 2002, 101-113.
  • R. W. Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel, Cambridge, Mass 1975.
  • R. Chevallier, Les voies Romaines, Paris 21998.
  • G. Dragon – H. Mihăescu, Le traité sur la guérilla (De velitatione) de l’empereur Nicéphore Phokas (963-969), Paris 1986.
  • I. Ch. Dimitroukas, Reisen und Verkehr im Byzantinischen Reich vom Anfang des 6. Jhr bis zur Mitte des 11 Jhr., I-II, Athen 1997.
  • F. Dölger, Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des Öströmischen Reiches von 565-1453, I, 2, Regesten von 867–1025, 2. Auflage von A. Müller, München 2003.
  • S. Eyice, Hanköyü’nde Husrev Paşa Camii, Tarih Dergisi 23,1969, 179-204.
  • D French, A Study of Roman Roads in Anatolia: Principles and Methods, Anatolian Studies 24, 1974, 143-49.
  • D. French, The Roman Road-system of Asia Minor, in: H. Temporini (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt 7/2, Berlin 1980, 698-729.
  • D. French, Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor, Fasc. 1: The Pilgrim’s Road, Oxford 1981 (British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 105).
  • D. French, A Road Problem: Roman or Byzantine?, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 43, 1993, 445-454.
  • D. French, Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor, III. Milestones, Fasc. 3.3, Cappadocia, Ankara 2012 (British Institute at Ankara, Electronic Monograph 3).
  • D. French, Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor, III. Milestones, Fasc. 3.4, Pontus et Bithynia (with Northern Galatia), Ankara 2013 (British Institute at Ankara, Electronic Monograph 4).
  • H. Hagenmeyer, Chronologie de la première Croisade (1094–1100), Revue de l’Orient Latin 6, 1898, 214-93, 490-549.
  • J. Haldon, Roads and communications in the Byzantine Empire: wagons, horses, and supplies, in: J. H. Prior (ed.), Logistics and Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, Aldershot 2006, 131-158.
  • J. Haldon, Introduction. Why model logistical systems?, in: J. Haldon (ed.), General Issues in the Study of Medieval Logistics, Leiden – Boston 2006, 1-35.
  • J. Haldon, Commerce and Exchange in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries. Regional Trade and the Movement of Goods, in: C. Morrisson (ed.), Trade and Markets in Byzantium, Washington 2012, 99-122.
  • R. H. Hewsen, The Geography of Ananias of Širak (AŠXARHAC‘OYC‘). The Long and the Short Recensions. Introduction, Translation and Commentary, Wiesbaden 1992 (Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Reihe B [Geisteswissenschaften] 77).
  • F. Hild, Das byzantinische Straßensystem in Kappadokien, Wien 1977 (Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für die Tabula Imperii Byzantini 2).
  • F. Hild – M. Restle Kappadokien (Kappadokia, Charsianon, Sebasteia und Lykandos), Wien 1981 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 2).
  • E. Honigmann, Un itinéraire arabe à travers le Pont, Annuaire de l’Institut de Philologie et d’Histoire Orientales et Slaves 4, 1936, 261-71 (= Mélanges Franz Cumont).
  • G. Huxley, A List of ἄπληκτα, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 16, 1975, 87-93.
  • A. Jaubert, Géographie d’Édrisi traduite et accompagnée de notes, I-II, Paris 1836-1840 (Recueil de Voyages et Mémoires 5, 6).
  • M. Kaplan, Quelques remarques sur les routes à grande circulation dans l’empire byzantine du VIe au XIe siècle, in: A. Dierkens – J.-M. Sansterre, avec la collaboration de J.-L. Kupper (eds.), Voyages et voyageurs à Byzance et en Occident du VIe au XIe siècle, Actes du colloque international organisé par la Section d’Histoire de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles en collaboration avec le Département des Sciences Historiques de l’Université de Liège (5–7 mai 1994), Genève 2000, 83–100 (Bibliothèque de la Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres de l’Université de Liège 278).
  • R. Kaplanoğlu, Osmanlı Devleti’nin Kuruluşu, Bursa 2000 (Avrasya Etnografya Vakfı Yayınları 7).
  • T. Kaya, Understanding the Use of Byzantine Routes in Central Anatolia (ca. 7th-9th Centuries), Studia Ceranea 9, 2019, 259-278.
  • A. Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Römischen Reich, Berlin 2000.
  • A. E. Laiou – C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy, Cambridge etc. 2007.
  • J. Lefort, Les communications entre Constantinople et la Bithynie, in: C. Mango – G. Dagron (eds.), Constantinople and its Hinterland. Papers from the Twenty-seventh Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Oxford, April 1993, Aldershot 1995, 207–218 (Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies 3).
  • J. Lefort, Les miniatures de Matrakçı, in: B. Geyer – J. Lefort (eds.), La Bithynie au Meyen Âge, Paris 2003, 99–112.
  • G. Leiser, Sulaymān b. Kutulmish, Encyclopédie de l’Islam, nouvelle édition 9, 1998, 860.
  • R.-J. Lilie, Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber, München 1976 (Miscellanea Byzantina Monacensia 22).
  • R. S. Lopez, Silk Industry in the Byzantine Empire, Speculum 20, 1945, 1-42 (repr. in R. S. Lopez, Byzantium and the world around it: Economic and Institutional Relations, London 1978 [Variorum Reprints, Collected Studies 85], Variorum Reprints, No. III).
  • T. K. Loungēs, Παραδείγματα Ἔργων Ὁδοποιίας στὸ Βυζάντιο, Diptycha Hetaireias Byzantinōn kai Metabyzantinōn Meletōn 6, 1994-1995, 37-48 (= Mnēmē Bruno Lavagnini).
  • U. M. Luther, Historical Route Network of Anatolia (Istanbul-Izmir-Konya), 1550’s to 1850’s: A Methodological Study, Ankara 1998.
  • I. Mélikoff, Danishmendids, Encyclopédie de l’Islam, nouvelle édition 2, 1965, 112-114.
  • S. Mitchell, Requisitioned Transport in the Roman Empire: A New Inscription from Pisidia, Journal of Roman Studies 66, 1976, 106-131.
  • Th. Pekáry, Untersuchungen zu den römischen Reichsstraßen, Bonn 1968 (Antiquitas, Reihe 1, Abhandlungen zur Alten Geschichte 17).
  • M. Rathmann, Untersuchungen zu den Reichsstraßen in den westlichen Provinzen des Imperium Romanum, Mainz 2003 (Beihefte Bonner Jahrbücher 55).
  • S. Redford, Towards a Social History of Seljuk Caravanserais and Routes (Pathways of Communication. Roads and routes in Anatolia from prehistory to Seljuk times, International Conference 20-22 March 2014, Ankara), in print
  • S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades I. The first crusade and the foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge 1951.
  • S. Şahin, Katalog der antiken Inschriften des Museums von Iznik (Nikaia). İznik Müsesi antik yazıtlar kataloğu II, 1, Bonn 1981 (IK 10,1).
  • H.-Chr. Schneider, Altstraßenforschung, Darmstadt 1982 (Erträge der Forschung 170).
  • A. Stauridou-Zaphraka, Ἡ ἀγγαρεία στὸ Βυζάντιο, Byzantina 11, 1982, 21-54.
  • F. Taeschner, Das anatolische Wegenetz nach osmanischen Quellen, I-II, Leipzig 1924-1926.
  • J. Turchetto, Old, new or ever-lasting roads? ‘Route inertia’, movement corridors and Seljuk caravanserais in medieval Anatolia (Frontier, Periphery or Centre? Society and Material Culture in Medieval Anatolia, Conference Edinburgh 19 June 2015), in print.
  • S. Vryonis, Jr., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century, Berkeley – Los Angeles – London 1971.
  • G. Yavuzcan, Türkiye Selçukluları’nda Ulaşım ve İktidar, in: A. Şişman et al. (eds.), CIEPO, Uluslararası Osmanlı Öncesi ve Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırmaları, 6. Ara Dönem Sempozyu Bildirileri,14-16 Nisan 2011 Uşak, İzmir 2011, 49-60.

Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 20, 79 - 98, 25.11.2020
https://doi.org/10.37095/gephyra.742745

Öz

The paper examines the development of roads in northwestern
(and parts of Central) Asia Minor from the Roman to the Byzantine period, pointing
also to some changes in the Turkish period until about the 17th century. There
was a remarkable continuity regarding the main routes of long distance traffic,
but these routes could change in detail, corresponding to different military
and economic focuses and needs. Design and building techniques of the roads
changed, depending on the economic resources the state was able to spend and
above all on the change from wagons and carts to pack animals. Neglect of the
wide, paved long-distance roads of the Roman imperial period at the end of
antiquity was linked to the gradual decrease of vehicular traffic in Asia
Minor. By the sixth century AD, travel and transport relied on mounts and pack
animals, except for some short-distance trans-portation on simple oxcarts.
Roads were adapted to these means of transport and became narrower and stepped
at steep passages.



From the seventh century onwards, following the loss of the
eastern provinces and during the nearly annual Arab invasions of Anatolia, the
Byzantines chose routes that were partly different from the main routes of the
Roman period and Late Antiquity, but which mostly were also inherited from
their Roman predecessors. The main routes through Asia Minor were generally
maintained in an acceptable order, but very few really new roads were built.



After the Seljuk conquests roads became insecure
again. The main lines of communication did not change, at least not in regions
under Byzantine control. The Ottomans took over most of the roads used by the
Byzantines for their military campaigns and for trade. It seems, however, that
they were readier to build at least a limited number of entirely new roads.
Their building techniques more or less followed the examples of their Byzantine
predecessors.

Kaynakça

  • M. Adak, Küçük Asya’da Roma İmparatorluğu Dönemi’nde Ulaşım, İletişim ve Taşımacılık / Travel, Communication and Transportation in Asia Minor During the Roman Imperial Period, in: O. Tekin (ed.), Hellenistik ve Roma Dönemlerinde Anadolu. Krallar, İmparatorlar, Kent Devletleri / Hellenistic and Roman Anatolia. Kings, Emperors, City States, İstanbul 2019, 432-448.
  • A. Avramea, Land and Sea Communications, Fourth-Fifteenth Century, in: A. E. Laiou (ed.), The Economic History of Byzantium, I, Washington, D.C., 2002, 57-90.
  • K. Belke, mit Beiträgen von M. Restle, Galatien und Lykaonien, Wien 1984 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 4).
  • K. Belke, Prokops De aedificiis, Buch V, zu Kleinasien, Antiquité Tardive 8, 2000, 115-125.
  • K. Belke, Verkehrsmittel und Reise- bzw. Transportgeschwindigkeiten zu Lande im Byzantinischen Reich, in: E. Kislinger – J. Koder – A. Külzer (eds.), Handelsgüter und Verkehrswege. Aspekte der Warenversorgung im östlichen Mittelmeerraum (4. bis 15. Jahrhundert). Akten des Internationalen Symposions Wien, 19.-22. Oktober 2005, Wien 2010, 45-58 (Veröffentlichungen zur Byzanzforschung 18 = ÖAW, phil.-hist. Kl., Denkschriften 388).
  • K. Belke, Byzanz und die Anfänge des rumseldschukischen Staates. Bemerkungen zur Chronologie von Anna Komnēnēs „Alexias“ in den Jahren 1084–1093, Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik 61, 2011, 65-79.
  • K. Belke, Bithynien und Hellespont in der Tabula Peutingeriana, in: A. Külzer – M. St. Popović (eds.), Space, Landscapes and Settlements in Byzantium: Studies in Historical Geography of the Eastern Mediterranean, Novi Sad – Vienna 2017, 51–73.
  • K. Belke, Bithynien und Hellespont, Wien 2020 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 13).
  • K. Belke – N. Mersich, Phrygien und Pisidien, Wien 1990 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 7)
  • C. M. Brand, Tzachas, The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium III 2134.
  • A. Bryer, The Means of Agricultural Production: Muscles and Tools, in: A. E. Laiou (ed.), The Economic History of Byzantium I, Washington, D.C. 2002, 101-113.
  • R. W. Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel, Cambridge, Mass 1975.
  • R. Chevallier, Les voies Romaines, Paris 21998.
  • G. Dragon – H. Mihăescu, Le traité sur la guérilla (De velitatione) de l’empereur Nicéphore Phokas (963-969), Paris 1986.
  • I. Ch. Dimitroukas, Reisen und Verkehr im Byzantinischen Reich vom Anfang des 6. Jhr bis zur Mitte des 11 Jhr., I-II, Athen 1997.
  • F. Dölger, Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des Öströmischen Reiches von 565-1453, I, 2, Regesten von 867–1025, 2. Auflage von A. Müller, München 2003.
  • S. Eyice, Hanköyü’nde Husrev Paşa Camii, Tarih Dergisi 23,1969, 179-204.
  • D French, A Study of Roman Roads in Anatolia: Principles and Methods, Anatolian Studies 24, 1974, 143-49.
  • D. French, The Roman Road-system of Asia Minor, in: H. Temporini (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt 7/2, Berlin 1980, 698-729.
  • D. French, Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor, Fasc. 1: The Pilgrim’s Road, Oxford 1981 (British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 105).
  • D. French, A Road Problem: Roman or Byzantine?, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 43, 1993, 445-454.
  • D. French, Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor, III. Milestones, Fasc. 3.3, Cappadocia, Ankara 2012 (British Institute at Ankara, Electronic Monograph 3).
  • D. French, Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor, III. Milestones, Fasc. 3.4, Pontus et Bithynia (with Northern Galatia), Ankara 2013 (British Institute at Ankara, Electronic Monograph 4).
  • H. Hagenmeyer, Chronologie de la première Croisade (1094–1100), Revue de l’Orient Latin 6, 1898, 214-93, 490-549.
  • J. Haldon, Roads and communications in the Byzantine Empire: wagons, horses, and supplies, in: J. H. Prior (ed.), Logistics and Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, Aldershot 2006, 131-158.
  • J. Haldon, Introduction. Why model logistical systems?, in: J. Haldon (ed.), General Issues in the Study of Medieval Logistics, Leiden – Boston 2006, 1-35.
  • J. Haldon, Commerce and Exchange in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries. Regional Trade and the Movement of Goods, in: C. Morrisson (ed.), Trade and Markets in Byzantium, Washington 2012, 99-122.
  • R. H. Hewsen, The Geography of Ananias of Širak (AŠXARHAC‘OYC‘). The Long and the Short Recensions. Introduction, Translation and Commentary, Wiesbaden 1992 (Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Reihe B [Geisteswissenschaften] 77).
  • F. Hild, Das byzantinische Straßensystem in Kappadokien, Wien 1977 (Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für die Tabula Imperii Byzantini 2).
  • F. Hild – M. Restle Kappadokien (Kappadokia, Charsianon, Sebasteia und Lykandos), Wien 1981 (Tabula Imperii Byzantini 2).
  • E. Honigmann, Un itinéraire arabe à travers le Pont, Annuaire de l’Institut de Philologie et d’Histoire Orientales et Slaves 4, 1936, 261-71 (= Mélanges Franz Cumont).
  • G. Huxley, A List of ἄπληκτα, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 16, 1975, 87-93.
  • A. Jaubert, Géographie d’Édrisi traduite et accompagnée de notes, I-II, Paris 1836-1840 (Recueil de Voyages et Mémoires 5, 6).
  • M. Kaplan, Quelques remarques sur les routes à grande circulation dans l’empire byzantine du VIe au XIe siècle, in: A. Dierkens – J.-M. Sansterre, avec la collaboration de J.-L. Kupper (eds.), Voyages et voyageurs à Byzance et en Occident du VIe au XIe siècle, Actes du colloque international organisé par la Section d’Histoire de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles en collaboration avec le Département des Sciences Historiques de l’Université de Liège (5–7 mai 1994), Genève 2000, 83–100 (Bibliothèque de la Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres de l’Université de Liège 278).
  • R. Kaplanoğlu, Osmanlı Devleti’nin Kuruluşu, Bursa 2000 (Avrasya Etnografya Vakfı Yayınları 7).
  • T. Kaya, Understanding the Use of Byzantine Routes in Central Anatolia (ca. 7th-9th Centuries), Studia Ceranea 9, 2019, 259-278.
  • A. Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Römischen Reich, Berlin 2000.
  • A. E. Laiou – C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy, Cambridge etc. 2007.
  • J. Lefort, Les communications entre Constantinople et la Bithynie, in: C. Mango – G. Dagron (eds.), Constantinople and its Hinterland. Papers from the Twenty-seventh Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Oxford, April 1993, Aldershot 1995, 207–218 (Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies 3).
  • J. Lefort, Les miniatures de Matrakçı, in: B. Geyer – J. Lefort (eds.), La Bithynie au Meyen Âge, Paris 2003, 99–112.
  • G. Leiser, Sulaymān b. Kutulmish, Encyclopédie de l’Islam, nouvelle édition 9, 1998, 860.
  • R.-J. Lilie, Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber, München 1976 (Miscellanea Byzantina Monacensia 22).
  • R. S. Lopez, Silk Industry in the Byzantine Empire, Speculum 20, 1945, 1-42 (repr. in R. S. Lopez, Byzantium and the world around it: Economic and Institutional Relations, London 1978 [Variorum Reprints, Collected Studies 85], Variorum Reprints, No. III).
  • T. K. Loungēs, Παραδείγματα Ἔργων Ὁδοποιίας στὸ Βυζάντιο, Diptycha Hetaireias Byzantinōn kai Metabyzantinōn Meletōn 6, 1994-1995, 37-48 (= Mnēmē Bruno Lavagnini).
  • U. M. Luther, Historical Route Network of Anatolia (Istanbul-Izmir-Konya), 1550’s to 1850’s: A Methodological Study, Ankara 1998.
  • I. Mélikoff, Danishmendids, Encyclopédie de l’Islam, nouvelle édition 2, 1965, 112-114.
  • S. Mitchell, Requisitioned Transport in the Roman Empire: A New Inscription from Pisidia, Journal of Roman Studies 66, 1976, 106-131.
  • Th. Pekáry, Untersuchungen zu den römischen Reichsstraßen, Bonn 1968 (Antiquitas, Reihe 1, Abhandlungen zur Alten Geschichte 17).
  • M. Rathmann, Untersuchungen zu den Reichsstraßen in den westlichen Provinzen des Imperium Romanum, Mainz 2003 (Beihefte Bonner Jahrbücher 55).
  • S. Redford, Towards a Social History of Seljuk Caravanserais and Routes (Pathways of Communication. Roads and routes in Anatolia from prehistory to Seljuk times, International Conference 20-22 March 2014, Ankara), in print
  • S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades I. The first crusade and the foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge 1951.
  • S. Şahin, Katalog der antiken Inschriften des Museums von Iznik (Nikaia). İznik Müsesi antik yazıtlar kataloğu II, 1, Bonn 1981 (IK 10,1).
  • H.-Chr. Schneider, Altstraßenforschung, Darmstadt 1982 (Erträge der Forschung 170).
  • A. Stauridou-Zaphraka, Ἡ ἀγγαρεία στὸ Βυζάντιο, Byzantina 11, 1982, 21-54.
  • F. Taeschner, Das anatolische Wegenetz nach osmanischen Quellen, I-II, Leipzig 1924-1926.
  • J. Turchetto, Old, new or ever-lasting roads? ‘Route inertia’, movement corridors and Seljuk caravanserais in medieval Anatolia (Frontier, Periphery or Centre? Society and Material Culture in Medieval Anatolia, Conference Edinburgh 19 June 2015), in print.
  • S. Vryonis, Jr., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century, Berkeley – Los Angeles – London 1971.
  • G. Yavuzcan, Türkiye Selçukluları’nda Ulaşım ve İktidar, in: A. Şişman et al. (eds.), CIEPO, Uluslararası Osmanlı Öncesi ve Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırmaları, 6. Ara Dönem Sempozyu Bildirileri,14-16 Nisan 2011 Uşak, İzmir 2011, 49-60.
Toplam 58 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Klaus Belke 0000-0002-6189-7523

Yayımlanma Tarihi 25 Kasım 2020
Gönderilme Tarihi 26 Mayıs 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2020 Cilt: 20

Kaynak Göster

APA Belke, K. (2020). Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century. Gephyra, 20, 79-98. https://doi.org/10.37095/gephyra.742745
AMA Belke K. Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century. GEPHYRA. Kasım 2020;20:79-98. doi:10.37095/gephyra.742745
Chicago Belke, Klaus. “Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, With Some Remarks on Their Fate During the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century”. Gephyra 20, Kasım (Kasım 2020): 79-98. https://doi.org/10.37095/gephyra.742745.
EndNote Belke K (01 Kasım 2020) Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century. Gephyra 20 79–98.
IEEE K. Belke, “Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century”, GEPHYRA, c. 20, ss. 79–98, 2020, doi: 10.37095/gephyra.742745.
ISNAD Belke, Klaus. “Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, With Some Remarks on Their Fate During the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century”. Gephyra 20 (Kasım 2020), 79-98. https://doi.org/10.37095/gephyra.742745.
JAMA Belke K. Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century. GEPHYRA. 2020;20:79–98.
MLA Belke, Klaus. “Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, With Some Remarks on Their Fate During the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century”. Gephyra, c. 20, 2020, ss. 79-98, doi:10.37095/gephyra.742745.
Vancouver Belke K. Roads and Routes in Northwestern and Adjoining Parts of Central Asia Minor: From the Romans to Byzantium, with Some Remarks on their Fate during the Ottoman Period up to the 17th Century. GEPHYRA. 2020;20:79-98.