AÇIK DENİZ PETROL ENDÜSTRİSİNİN EKOTOKSİKOLOJİK ETKİLERİ

Yıl 2019, Sayı: 16, 39 - 55, 01.10.2019

Alkın Erdal Demirhan Sevil Deniz Yakan

Öz

Sanayi Devrimi’nden sonra petrole duyulan ihtiyacın artmasıyla ilk başta karadaki petrol rezervlerinden petrol çıkartılmaya başlanmıştır. Ancak hem artan ihtiyacın karşılanabilmesi hem de petrolün varil fiyatını düşürmek amacıyla denizlerde bulunan petrol rezervlerine de yönelim olmuştur. Günümüzde, neredeyse dünyadaki bütün denizlerde petrol ve doğal gaz çıkartılmaktadır. Petrol çıkartılırken veya işlenirken geçtiği işlemler sonucunda, üretimden oluşan su, sondaj sıvıları, sondaj çamurları veya sondaj kesintileri gibi bazı ürünler oluşabilmekte ve bazen bunlar denize deşarj edilebilmektedir. Bu deşarj, o çevrede yaşayan canlılara, canlıların yaşam alanlarına, sedimentlere, deniz ortamına veya ekolojik dengeye ciddi zararlar verebilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, açık deniz petrol endüstrisinin ekotoksikolojik etkileri göz önüne serilmiştir

Anahtar Kelimeler

Açık deniz yapısı, petrol platformu, sondaj, üretimden oluşan su, ekotoksikoloji

Kaynakça

• Alkindi, A.Y.A., Brown, J.A., Waring, C.P. ve Collins, J.E., 1996. Endocrine, osmoregulatory, respiratory and haematological parameters in flounder exposed to the water-soluble fraction of crude oil, Journal of Fish Biology, 49, 1291–1305.
• Aller, R.C. ve Aller, J.Y., 1998. The effect of biogenic irrigation intensity and solute exchange on diagenetic reaction rates in marine sediments. ICES Journal of Marine Research, 56, 905–936. ALTRA, 1996. Review of drill cuttings piles. UKOOA and Department of Trade and Industry report. Altra Safety and Environment Ltd.
• Anderson, J.W., Jones, J.M., Steinert, S., Sanders, B., Means, J., McMillin, D., Vu, T. ve Tukey, R., 1999. Correlation of CYP1 A1 induction, as measured by the P450 RGS biomarker assay, with high molecular weight PAHs in mussels deployed at various sites in San Diego Bay in 1993 and 1995, Marine Environmental Research., 48, 389–405.
• AURIS, 1993. Northwest Hutton Drill Cutting Survey, report of sediment, chemical and biological analyses. Auris Environmental Report prepared for Brown and Root Survey Ltd. Auris Report BE75.
• Bakke, T., Berge, J.A., Naes, K., Oreld, F., Reiersen, L.O. ve Bryne, K., 1989a. Long-term recolonization and chemical-change in sediments contaminated with oil-based drill cuttings. In: Engelhardt, F.R., Ray, J.P., Gillam, A.H. (Ed.), Drilling Wastes. Elsevier, London, 521–544.
• Bakke, T., Berge, J.A., Schaanning, M., Skeie, G.M. ve Oreld, F., 1989b. Effects of low-aromatic drill cuttings on an enclosed deep-water sediment community. In: Engelhardt, F.R., Ray, J.P., Gillam, A.H. (Eds.), Drilling Wastes. Elsevier, London, pp. 495–519.
• Beckman, M., Hardege, J.D. ve Zeeck, E., 1995. Effects of the volatile fraction of crude oil on spawning behavior of nereids (Annelida, Polychaeta), Marine Environmental Research, 40 (3), 267–276.
• Black, K.P., Brand, G.W., Grynberg, H., Gwyther, D., Hammond, L.S., Mourtikas, S., Richardson, B.J. ve Wardrop, J.A., 1994a. Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia Production Activities, Australian Petroleum Exploration Association (APEA), Energy Research and Development Corporation (ERDC), 344–385.
• Black, K.P., Brand, G.W., Gwyther, D., Hammond, L.S., Mourtikas, S., Noyes-Fitzsimmons, R.L., Smith, J.M. ve Richardson, B.J., 1994b. Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia Coastal Facilities, Australian Petroleum Exploration Association (APEA), Energy Research and Development Corporation (ERDC), 460–492.
• Bleier, R., Leuterman, A.J.J. ve Stark, C., 1993. Drilling fluids: making peace with the environment. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 45 (1), 6–10.
• Botello, A.V.S., Villanueva, F. ve Diaz, G., 1997. Petroleum pollution in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 153, 91–118.
• Boudreau, B.P., 1998. Mean mixed depth of sediments: the wherefore and the why. Limnology and Oceanography, 43, 524–526.
• Brendehaug, J., Johnsen, S., Bryne, K.H., Gjose, A.L., Eide, T.H. ve Aamot, E., 1992. Toxicity testing and chemical characterization of produced water a preliminary study, Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions, Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 245–256.
• Breuer E., Stevenson A.G., Howe J.A., Carroll J., Shimmield G.B. Drill cutting accumulations in the Northern and Central North Sea: a review of environmental interactions and chemical fate. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48 (2004) 12–25.
• Burke, C.J. ve Veil, J.A., 1995. Synthetic-based drilling fluids have many environmental pluses, Oil and Gas Journal, 93 (48), 59–71.
• Burns, K.A., Codi, S., Furnas, M., Heggie, D., Holdway, D., King, B. ve McAllister, F., 1999. Dispersion and fate of produced formation water constituents in an Australian northwest shelf shallow water ecosystem, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38, 593–603.
• Carroll, J.L., Falkner, K.K., Brown, E.T. ve Moore, W.S., 1993. The role of the Ganges– Brahmaputra mixing zone in supplying barium and radium to the Bay of Bengal, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 57, 2981–2990.
• Chambers, D.G., Woods, S.E. ve Abernathy, S.E., 1994. Processing and disposal of scales containing naturally occurring radioactive materials, Petroleum Abstracts of the ASME Energy Sources Technology Conference, New Orleans, Abstract No. 580, 925 V. 34 No. 36.
• Daan, R., Booij, K., Mulder, M. ve Van Weerlee, E.M., 1995. A study of the environmental effects of a discharge of drill cuttings contaminated with ester-based drilling muds in the North Sea. NIOZ-Rapport 1995-2, Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, North Sea Directorate, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.
• Daan, R., Booij, K., Mulder, M. ve Van Weerlee, E.M., 1996. Environmental effects of a discharge of drill cuttings contaminated with ester-based drilling muds in the North Sea, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 15 (10), 1709–1722.
• Daan, R. ve Mulder, M., 1993. Long term effect of OBM cutting discharges at a drilling site on the Dutch Continental Shelf, Netherlands Institute of Oceanography (NIOZ) internal report 1993- Daan, R. ve Mulder, M., 1994. Long-term effects of OBM cutting discharges in the sandy erosion area of the Dutch continental shelf, NIOZ-Rapport 1994-10, Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, North Sea Directorate, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.
• Daan, R., Mulder, M. ve Vanleeuwen, A., 1994. Differential sensitivity of macrozoobenthic species to discharges of oil contaminated drill cuttings in the North Sea, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research, 33, 113–127.
• Daan, R. ve Mulder, M., 1995. Long-term effects of OBM cutting discharges in the sedimentation area of the Dutch Continental Shelf, Netherlands Institute of Oceanography (NIOZ) internal report 1995-11.
• Davies, J.M. ve Kingston, P.F., 1992. Sources of environmental disturbance associated with offshore oil and gas developments. In: Cairns, W.J. (Ed.), North Sea Oil and the Environment. Developing Oil and Gas Resources, Environmental Impacts and Responses. Elsevier, London, 417–440.
• Dekkers, C. ve Daane, R., 1999. Metal contents in crudes much lower than expected, Oil and Gas Journal, 97 (44), 44–57.
• Dow, F.K., Davies, J.M. ve Raffaelli, D., 1990. The effects of drill cuttings on a model marine sediment system, Marine Environmental Research, 29, 103–134.
• Gagnon, M.M. ve Holdway, D.A., 2000. EROD induction and biliary metabolite excretion following exposure to crude oil or dispersed crude oil, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 38, 70–77.
• Gardline, 1996. Baseline environmental survey of the sediments around UKCS 15/23a. Gardline Report no 4822.
• Gulec, I., 1994. Evaluation of toxicity of drilling fluids and their impact on marine environment, M.Eng. Thesis, University of New South Wales.
• Gulec, I. ve Holdway, D.A., 1999. The toxicity of laboratory burned oil to the amphipod Allorchestes compressa and the snail Polinices conicus. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 5 (2), 135–139.
• Gulec, I. ve Holdway, D.A., 2000. Toxicity of crude oil and dispersed crude oil to ghost shrimp Palaemon serenus and Australian bass larvae Macquaria novemaculeata, Environmental Toxicology, 15 (2), 91–98.
• Hart, A.D., Graham, B.D. ve Gettleson, D.A., 1995. NORM associated with produced water discharges, SPE/EPA Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, Houston, TX.
• Hartley, J.P., 1996. Environmental monitoring of offshore oil and gas drilling discharges – a caution on the use of barium as a tracer, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 32 (10), 727–733.
• Hartley, J.P. ve Watson, T.N., 1993. Investigation of a North Sea oil platform drill cuttings pile. In: Proceedings 25th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, USA, 749–752.
• Hartwell, S.I., Dawson, C.E., Durell, E.Q., Alden, R.W., Adolphson, P.C., Wright, D.A., Coelho, G.M. ve Magee, J.A., 1998. Integrated measures of ambient toxicity and fish community diversity in Chesapeake Bay tributaries, Ecotoxicology, 7 (1), 19–35.
• Henderson, S.B., Grigson, S.J.W., Johnson, P. ve Roddie, B.D., 1999. Potential impact of production chemicals on the toxicity of produced water discharges from North Sea oil platforms. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38 (12), 1141–1151.
• Hinkle-Conn, C., Fleeger, J.W., Gregg, J.C. ve Caman, K.R., 1998. Effects of sediment-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on feeding behavior in juvenile spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 227, 113–132.
• Hinwood, J.B., Potts, A.E., Dennis, L.R., Carey, J.M., Houridis, H., Bell, R.J., Thomson, J.R., Boudreau, P. ve Ayling, A.M., 1994. Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia – Drilling Activities. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association (APEA), Energy Research and Development Corporation (ERDC), 123–206.
• Holdway, D.A., Brennan, S.E. ve Ahokas, J.T., 1995. Short review ofselected fish biomarkers of xenobiotic exposure with an example using fish hepatic mixed-function oxidase, Australian Journal of Ecology, 20, 34–44.
• Holdway D.A. The acute and chronic effects of wastes associated with offshore oil and gas production on temperate and tropical marine ecological processes. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44 (2002) 185–203.
• Houghton, J.P., Critchlow, K.R., Lees, D.C. ve Czlapinski, R.D., 1981. Fate and effects of drilling fluids and cuttings discharges in Lower Cook Inlet, Alaska, and on Georges Bank. Dames & Moore Report.
• Hudgins, C., 1994. Chemical use in north sea oil and gas E&P, Journal of Petroleum Technology, 67–75.
• IAEA, 1990. The environmental behaviour of radium. IAEA Technical Report Series No. 310. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
• Kennicutt, M.C., Green, R.H., Montagna, P. ve Roscigno, P.F., 1996a. Gulf of Mexico offshore operations monitoring experiment (GOOMEX), Phase 1: Sublethal responses to contaminant exposure – introduction and overview, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatatic Sciences, 53, 2540–2553.
• Kennicutt, M.C., Boothe, P.N., Wade, T.L., Sweet, S.T., Rezak, R., Kelly, F.J., Brooks, J.M., Presley, B.J., Wiesenburg, D.A., 1996b. Geochemical patterns in sediments near offshore production platforms, Canadian. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatatic Sciences, 53, 2554–2566.
• Khan, R.A., 1995. Histopathology in winter flounder, Pleuronectes mericanus, following chronic exposure to crude oil, Bulletin of Environmental Toxicology, 54, 297–301.
• Khan, A., 1998. Influence of petroleum at a refinery terminal on feral winter flounder, Pleurocnectes americanus, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 61, 770– Krause, P.R., Osenberg, C.W. ve Schmitt, R.J., 1992. Effects of produced water on early life stages of a sea urchin: stage-specific responses and delayed expression. In: Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Ed.), Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions, Plenum Press, New York, 431–444.
• Krause, P.R., 1995. Spatial and temporal variability in receiving water toxicity near an oil effluent discharge site, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 29, 523–529.
• Legeleux, F., Reyss, J.L., 1996. Ra-228/Ra-226 activity ratio in oceanic settling particles: implications regarding the use of barium as a proxy for paleoproductivity reconstruction, Deep- Sea Research Part 1, 43, 1857–1863.
• Macauley, J.M., Clark, J.R. ve Pitts, A.R., 1990. Use of Thalassia and its epiphytes for toxicity assessment: effects of a drilling fluid and tributyltin, Plants for Toxicity Assessment, ASTM STP, 1091, 255–266.
• Marty, G.D., Hose, J.E., McGurk, M.D., Brown, E.D. ve Hinton, D.E., 1997. Histopathology and cytogenetic evaluation of Pacific herring lavae exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons in the laboratory or in Prince William Sound, Alaska, after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 54, 1846–1857.
• Marty, G.D., Okihiro, M.S., Brown, E.D., Hanes, D., Hinton, D.E., 1999. Histopathology of adult Pacific herring in Prince William Sound, Alaska, after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 56, 419–426.
• Meinhold, A.F., Holtzman, S. ve DePhillips, M.P., 1996. Produced water discharges to the Gulf of Mexico: Background information for ecological risk assessments. Upton, New York. UNT Digital Library. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc684746/. Accessed December 30, 2016.
• Middaugh, D.P., Shelton, M.E., McKenney Jr., C.L., Cherr, G., Chapman, P.J. ve Courtney, L.A., 1998. Preliminary observations on responses of embryonic and larval Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi, to neutral fraction biodegradation products of weathered Alaska North Slope oil, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 34, 188–196.
• Mitchell, F.M. ve Holdway, D.A., 2000. The acute and chronic toxicity of the dispersants Corexit 9500 and 9527, water accommodated fraction (WAF) of crude oil, and dispersant enhanced WAF (DEWAF) to Hydra viridissima (green hydra), Water Research, 34 (1), 343–348.
• Moles, A., 1998. Sensitivity of ten aquatic species to long-term crude oil exposure, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 61, 102–107.
• Moles, A. ve Norcross, B.L., 1998. Effects of oil-laden sediments on growth and health of juvenile flatfishes, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55, 605–610.
• Moles, A., 1999. Parasitism, feeding rate, and hydrocarbon uptake of pink shrimp Pandalus borealis fed a crude oil contaminated diet, Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 62, 259–265.
• Moore, J., Evans, S., Bullimore, B., Hodges, J., Crump, R., Cremona, J., Bunker, F., Rostrom, D., Little, A., Chamberlain, Y., Dyrynda, P. ve Worley, A., 1997. Sea Empress Spill: impacts on marine and coastal habitats, International Oil Spill Conference, 213–216.
• Neff, J.M., Sauer Jr., T.C. ve Maciolek, N., 1992. Composition, fate andeffects of produced water discharges to nearshore marine waters, Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Ed.), Produced Water: Technological/ Environmental Issues and Solutions. Plenum Press, New York, 371–385.
• Okpokwasili, G.C. ve Nnubia, C., 1995. Effects of oil spill dispersants and drilling fluids on substrate specificity of marine bacteria, Waste Management, 15(7), 515–520.
• OLF, 1998. The Norwegian Oil Industry Association Environmental Report 1995–1997.
• Osenberg, C.W., Schmitt, R.J., Holbrook, S.J. ve Canestro, D., 1992. Spatial scale of ecological effects associated with an open coast discharge of produced water. Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Ed.), Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions, Plenum Press, New York, 387–402.
• Papp, R.J.A. ve West, N.F., 1999. Drilling fluids and their environmental management: the introduction of an ester oxygen-based fluid, APPEA (The Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association) Journal, 640–645.
• Phillips, C., Evans, J., Hom, W. ve Clayton, J., 1998. Long-term changes in sediment barium inventories associated with drilling-related discharges in the Santa Maria basin, CA, USA, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 17(9), 1653–1661.
• Plasman, C., 1998. The state of the marine environment of the North Sea and of the Baltic Sea: a comparison in relation to dangerous substances, International Journal Of Marine And Coastal Law, 13 (3), 325–336.
• Rabalais, N.N., McKee, B.A., Reed, D.J. ve Means, J.C., 1992. Fate and effects of produced water discharges
• Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions, Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 355–369. Louisiana, Gulf of Mexico, USA, Produced
• Water: Raimondi, P.T. ve Schmitt, R.J., 1992. Effects of produced water on settlement of larvae: field test using red abalone. Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions, Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 415– 430.
• Reed, D.C., Lewis, R.J. ve Anghera, M., 1994. Effects of an open-coast oil-production outfall on patterns of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) recruitment, Marine Biology, 120, 25–31.
• Reis, J.C., 1992. Coping with the waste stream from drilling for oil, Mechanical Engineering – CIME (International Conference on Industrial and Mechanical Engineering) , 114 (6), 64–71.
• Temara, A., Gulec, I. ve Holdway, D.A., 1999. Oil-induced disruption of the foraging behaviour of the asteroid keystone predator, Coscinasterias muricata (Echinodermata), Marine Biology, 133 (3), 501–507.
• Terrens, G.W. ve Tait, R.D., 1994. Effects on the marine environment of produced formation water discharges from offshore development in Bass Strait, Australia, The Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Society of Petroleum Engineers publication no. SPE27149.
• Veil, J.A. ve Smith, K.P., 1999. NORM-disposal options, costs vary. Oil and Gas Journal, 97, 37– 43.
• Volkman, J.K., Miller, G.J., Revill, A.T. ve Conell, D.W., 1994. Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia Oil Spills. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association (APEA), Energy Research and Development Corporation (ERDC), 556–626.