Visual literacy skills of gifted and typically developing students: An eye-tracking study

Abstract

Visual literacy is a fundamental requirement of the modern age. However, visual literacy remains underexplored in gifted and typically developing students using eye-tracking techniques. The present study aimed to investigate the visual literacy skills of gifted and typically developing Turkish-speaking students using an eye-tracking technique. Specifically, the study examined the location and duration of visual attention and the decision-making processes of eighth-grade students while responding to two multimedia multiple-choice questions. Participants were presented with two multimedia questions, and their eye movements were recorded while solving them. The first question included tables and symbols, whereas the second was based on a graph. The first question was about the weather and the second about the stages of sleep. Multimedia question for gifted and typically developing 8th graders, the visual part of which consists of tables and symbols for dwell time, average fixation duration parameters have a descriptive role. In the other question, where the visual part was a graphic, revisit and fixation count as well as average fixation duration in the text part were found to be the evaluation criteria. Finally, the assessment of visual literacy, which eye-movement parameters can be used as assessment criteria in visual literacy, and the differences between gifted and typically developing students in solving multimedia tasks were discussed in the context of the literature and suggestions were presented.

Keywords

• Eye-tracking
• Visual literacy
• Gifted students
• Typically developing students

Ethical Statement

This research was conducted under the approval of the Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences at Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, dated May 10, 2023, and numbered 2023/04/14.

References

1. Aisami, R.S. (2015). Learning styles and visual literacy for learning and performance. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 176, 538-545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.508
2. Alberto, P.A., Fredrick, L., Hughes, M., McIntosh, L., & Cihak, D. (2007). Components of visual literacy: Teaching logos. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(4), 234-243. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576070220040501
3. Alevli, O. (2018). Sensitivity of their families on the reading habit of the gifted students. Journal of National Education, 47(Special Issue 1), 129-142. https://izlik.org/JA78UH55DJ
4. Armut, M., Özer, E., & Kara, M. (2021, November 12). Üstün yetenekli/zekâlı çocukların okuma becerilerinin incelenmesi [Investigation of reading skills of gifted/talented children] [Paper presentation]. 19th International Symposium on Primary Teacher Education, Ankara, Türkiye.
5. Bahar, A., Kaya, A.İ., & Bahar, F. (2016). Differences in reading attitudes and preferences between gifted and non gifted elementary students. Education and Science, 41(187), 45 61. https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2016.4595
6. Bilgiç, N., Tastan, A., Kurukaya, G., Kaya, K., Avanoglu, O., & Topal, T. (2021). Özel yetenekli bireylerin eğitimi strateji ve uygulama kılavuzu [Strategy and implementation guide for the education of gifted individuals]. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Education.
7. Bojko, A. (2013). Eye tracking the user experience: A practical guide to research. Rosenfeld Media.
8. Brindger, C. (2009). The effects of accelerated reader (AR) as an extrinsic motivation tool for improving gifted students’ reading levels. The Corinthian, 10(1), 57 64.

9. Churchill, S. (2020). Left to chance: Gifted students and independent reading. Knowledge Quest, 48(5), 24-31. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1252582.pdf
10. Duchak, O. (2014). Visual literacy in educational practice. Czech-Polish Historical and Pedagogical Journal, 6(2), 41-48. https://doi.org/10.247/cphpj-2014-0017
11. Duchowski, A.T. (2007). Eye-tracking methodology: Theory & practice (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag London Limited.
12. Duchowski, A.T. (2017). Eye-tracking methodology: Theory & practice (3rd ed.). Springer International Publishing AG.
13. Dunn, K., Georgiou, G., & Das, J.P. (2020). The relationship of cognitive processes with reading and mathematics achievement in intellectually gifted children. Roeper Review, 42(2), 126-135. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2020.1728803
14. Drummond, L.J. (1997). Cognitive processes of children with reading decoding difficulties: A comparison between groups of average and gifted intelligence across two educational divisions [Master’s thesis, University of Calgary]. National Library of Canada. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/bitstream/handle/1880/26994/24656Drummond.pdf?sequence=1
15. Escalante-Talavera, J.M. (2018). ESL students' reading behaviors on multiple-choice items at differing proficiency levels: An eye-tracking study [Master’s thesis, Brigham Young University]. ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2866085020?pq origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses
16. Fahrenbach, C.R. (1991). Gifted/average readers: Do they use the same reading strategies?, Gifted Child Quarterly, 35(3), 125-127. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698629103500303
17. Galley, N., Betz, D., & Biniossek, C. (2015). Fixation durations – why are they so highly variable? In T. Heinen (Ed.), Advances in visual perception research (pp. 83-106). Nova Science Publishers.
18. Glasgow, J.N. (1994). Teaching visual literacy for the 21st century. Journal of Reading, 37(6), 494-500. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40032259?seq=2
19. Godfroid, A. (2020). Eye-tracking in second language acquisition and bilingualism: A research synthesis and methodological guide. Routledge.
20. Hashemi, A. (2021). The effects of using games on teaching vocabulary in reading comprehension: A case of gifted students. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 9(2), 181-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.17478/jegys.846480
21. Hawkins, S. (1983). Reading interests of gifted children. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 24(1), 18 22.
22. Hickerson, B. (1984, April 12-14). Extending the reading abilities of the average and above-average student: Critical reading/thinking for gifted (and not-so-gifted) high school students [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of The National Council of Teachers of English Spring Conference, Columbus, OH, USA. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED246399.pdf
23. Hoffman, J. (2017). The impact of teachers’ perceptions and their instructional practices of reading engagement of typical and gifted students in grades 3-5 [Doctoral dissertation, St. John’s University]. ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1872365535?pq origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses
24. Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Jarodzka, H., & van de Weijer, J. (2011). Eye-tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures. Oxford University Press.
25. Jović, V.M. (2016). How to choose required reading for primary school—with regard to literarily gifted children. Learning and Teaching, 2(1), 117 128.
26. Josephina, S. (1964). Actual and expected reading scores of gifted and average pupils. Peabody Journal of Education, 42(1), 28-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/01619566409537224
27. Karababa, S., & Kaya, D. (2018). Examining gifted students' metacognitive awareness of reading strategies based on certain variables. Route Educational and Social Science Journal, 5(5), 132-147. https://doi.org/10.17121/ressjournal.921
28. Kılıç, M. (2019). Özgün içerikli etkinliklerin üstün yetenekli ve zekâlı öğrencilerin eleştirel okuma becerisine etkisi [The effect of original content activities on the skills of critical reading of superior talented and intelligent students] [Master’s thesis, Yıldız Technical University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.
29. Krieber, M., Bartl-Pokorny, K.D., Pokorny, F.B., Einspieler, C., Langmann, A., Körner, C., Falck-Ytter, T., & Marschik, P.B. (2016). The relation between reading skills and eye movement patterns in adolescent readers: Evidence from a regular orthography. PloS One, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145934
30. Lemke, C. (2002). enGauge 21st century skills: Digital literacies for a digital age. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. https://bit.ly/3vXhqq3
31. Lindner, M.A., Eitel, A., Thoma, G.B., Dalehefte, I.M., Ihme, J.M., & Köller, O. (2014). Tracking the decision‐making process in multiple‐choice assessment: Evidence from eye movements. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(5), 738-752. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3060
32. Lundy, A.D., & Stephens, A.E. (2015). Beyond the literal: Teaching visual literacy in the 21st century classroom. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 1057 1060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.794
33. Mayer, R.E. (2002). Multimedia learning. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 41, 85-139. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(02)80005-6
34. Mayer, R.E. (2005). Introduction to multimedia learning. In R.E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 1-24). Cambridge University.
35. Mason, L., Pluchino, P., & Tornatora, M.C. (2013). Effects of picture labeling on science text processing and learning: Evidence from eye movements. Reading Research Quarterly, 48(2), 199-214. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.41
36. Ministry of National Education. (2018). Özel eğitim hizmetleri yönetmeliği [Special education services regulation]. General Directorate of Special Education and Guidance Services. https://orgm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2018_07/09101900_ozel_egitim_hizmetleri_yonetmeligi_07072018.pdf
37. Ogurlu, U. (2014). Reading interests, attitudes and critical thinking skills of gifted children. Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Journal of Special Education, 15(02), 29-43. https://doi.org/10.1501/Ozlegt_0000000197
38. Oyekoya, O., & Stentiford, F. (2007). Perceptual image retrieval using eye movements. International Journal of Computer Mathematics, 84(9), 1379-1391. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207160701242268
39. Özer, E., & Özdemir, S. (2021). The relation between reading performance and eye movement parameters of high-skilled and low-skilled readers. Education and Science, 46(208), 395-412. https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2021.9777
40. Park, H., Choi, S., & Lee, M. (2012). Visual input enhancement, attention, grammar learning, and reading comprehension: An eye movement study. English Teaching, 67(4), 241 265. https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.67.4.201212.241
41. Rayner, K. (1992). Eye movements and visual cognition: Introduction. In Rayner, K. (Ed.), Eye movements and visual cognition (pp. 1-7). Springer.
42. Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372-422. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372
43. Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(8), 1457 1506. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902816461
44. Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., Ashby, J., & Clifton, C., Jr. (2012). Psychology of reading (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
45. Reis, S.M., & Boeve, H. (2009). How academically gifted elementary, urban students respond to challenge in an enriched, differentiated reading program. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 33(2), 203-240. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320903300204
46. Reis, S., Gubbins, E., Briggs, C., Schreiber, F., Richards, S., Jacobs, J., Eckert, R.D., & Renzulli, J.S. (2004). Reading instruction for talented readers: Case studies documenting few opportunities for continuous progress. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48(4), 315 338. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620404800406
47. Rowsell, J., McLean, C., & Hamilton, M. (2012). Visual literacy as a classroom approach. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(5), 444-447. https://doi.org/10.1002/JAAL.00053
48. Safonova, N. (2018). Visual literacy in multilingual foreign language teaching. Anglistics and Americanistics, 15, 75-81. https://anglistika.dp.ua/index.php/AA/article/view/163/419
49. Saglam, A., Bas, O., & Akyol, H. (2020). The effect of word drill technique on 3rd class gifted students’ fluent reading levels. Journal of History School, 46, 1605 1629. http://dx.doi.org/10.29228/joh.42792
50. Sajka, M. (2017, February 1-5). Visual attention while reading a multiple choice task by academics and students: A comparative eye-tracking approach [Paper presentation]. The Tenth Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education, Dublin, Ireland.
51. Sallabaş, M.E., & Özcan, S. (2020). Analysis of the critical reading and comprehension skills of gifted and normally developed students. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 12(1), 265-283. https://doi.org/10.15345/iojes.2020.01.016
52. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257-285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4
53. Sweller, J. (1989). Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and problem solving in mathematics and science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(4), 457 466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.4.457
54. Shapka, M.L. (1990). Metacognitive reading strategy awareness of gifted, average, and learning disabled students [Master’s thesis, University of Alberta]. Theses Canada. https://library-archives.canada.ca/eng/services/services-libraries/theses/Pages/item.aspx?idNumber=28215582
55. Škrabánková, J., & Trnová, E. (2014, August 3-6). Researching students gifted in science using the method of eye-tracking [Paper presentation]. The 13th APFG Conference on Giftedness, Beijing, China. https://epedagogium.upol.cz/pdfs/epd/2015/04/08.pdf
56. Škrabánková, J., Kočí, P., Vaněk, V., & Nocar, D. (2019). Differences in attitudes to solving task by gifted and standard students monitored by the eye-tracking technology-pilot study. In 12th Annual International Conference of Education Proceedings (pp. 6237 6245). https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2019.1502
57. Smith, S., & Arthur-Kelly, M. (2016). Perceptions of differentiating pedagogy for gifted readers, typically developing readers, and students with reading difficulties in multi-grade primary classrooms. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 25(2), 52 69. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.418867638109933
58. Smith, A., & Feng, J. (2018, October 5). Literature circle and gifted students: Boosting reading motivation and performance [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the Georgia Educational Research Association, Macon, GA. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED588790.pdf
59. Specian Junior, F.C., Santos, T.M., Sandars, J., Amaral, E.M., & Cecilio-Fernandes, D. (2023). Identifying the response process validity of clinical vignette-type multiple choice questions: An eye-tracking study. Medical Teacher, 45(8), 845-851, https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2023.2182662
60. Tsai, M.J., Hou, H.T., Lai, M.L., Liu, W.Y., & Yang, F.Y. (2012). Visual attention for solving multiple-choice science problem: An eye tracking analysis. Computers & Education, 58(1), 375 385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.07.012
61. UNESCO. (2024). Aspects of literacy assessment: Topics and issues from the UNESCO expert meeting. Section for Literacy and Non Formal Education Division of Basic Education. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001401/140125eo.pdf
62. Ünal, D., Demirtaş, Z., & Gür Erdoğan, D. (2018). Reading habit in gifted and talented students. National Education Journal, 47(1), 109 127. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article file/569317
63. van Viersen, S., Kroesbergen, E.H., Slot, E.M., & de Bree, E.H. (2016). High reading skills mask dyslexia in gifted children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(2), 189 199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414538517
64. Weganofa, R., Pratiwi, N., Liskinasih, A., & Sulistyo, G.H. (2020). The effectiveness of pre-reading activities on gifted students: A case on low achievement students. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 8(1), 501-513. https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.644812
65. Wood, P.F. (2008). Reading instruction with gifted and talented readers: A series of unfortunate events or a sequence of auspicious results?. Gifted Child Today, 31(3), 16-25. https://doi.org/10.4219/gct-2008-783
66. Yaneva, V., Clauser, B.E., Morales, A., & Paniagua, M. (2021). Using eye‐tracking data as part of the validity argument for multiple‐choice questions: A demonstration. Journal of Educational Measurement, 58(4), 515-537. https://doi.org/10.1111/jedm.12304
67. Yenawine, P. (1997). Thoughts on visual literacy. In J. Flood, S.B. Heath, & D. Lapp (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching literacy through the communicative visual arts (pp. 845-860). MacMillan