DETERMINANTS OF DIGITAL FINANCIAL INCLUSION IN TURKEY: EVIDENCE FROM WORLD BANK FINDEX 2025 MICRO-DATA

Öz

This study examines the demographic determinants of digital financial inclusion (DFI) in Turkey by using the individual micro-data (N=1,000) of the World Bank Global Findex in 2025 and a Partial Proportional Odds Model (gologit2). DFI has been operationalized as a four-level ordinal index ranging from no account ownership (Level 0) to digital merchant payment usage (Level 3) and so an ordered logit baseline has been estimated; nevertheless, the proportional odds assumption has been rejected (chi-squared(12)=112.97, p<0.001), by motivating gologit2 auto-fit. Compiled results reveal a two-layer structure of financial inclusion and the factor of income is no longer a significant predictor (p=0.660) at the account access layer and women exhibit higher DFI probabilities than men when structural controls are applied (beta=+0.817***), consistent with a fin-tech democratization dynamic. All of the deep digital usage layers, income (beta=+0.897***) and education (beta=+2.027***) emerge as increasingly powerful determinants. Employment status is the strongest predictor across all levels (marginal effect: +39.4 percentage points for full digital inclusion), followed by education (+32.8 pp). Policy implications call for a shift from account-opening metrics toward active digital usage, together with targeted interventions for low-income and less-educated groups.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Financial inclusion
• digital finance
• financial technologies
• digital payments

Kaynakça

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