Comparative Evaluation of Education Expenditures in Türkiye and Pisa Results in 2022

Öz

Education is a crucial driver of human capital, economic growth, and social development, transmitting cultural values and shaping societal attitudes. Recognized as a quasi-public good, education requires both public and private funding, with the public sector ensuring the provision of its broad societal benefits. However, efficient allocation and utilization of education budgets are pivotal, as expenditure alone does not guarantee improved outcomes. This study conducts a comparative analysis of Türkiye’s education expenditures, evaluating total spending, budget shares, and GDP proportions against the top ten OECD countries that performed best in the 2022 PISA rankings. The findings reveal that Türkiye’s education spending remains below the OECD average, with particularly low preschool participation rates. Despite this, Türkiye performs relatively well in science compared to its expenditure level, indicating efficiency gains in certain areas. By focusing not only on spending levels but also on efficiency in resource use, the study contributes to understanding how financial and structural factors jointly influence educational performance. The paper concludes with targeted policy implications—emphasizing expansion of preschool education, improved retention at the upper-secondary level, and enhanced public investment efficiency—to strengthen long-term educational outcomes and equity in Türkiye.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Education Expenditures
• Efficiency
• PISA Results

Comparative Evaluation of Education Expenditures in Türkiye and 2022 Pisa Results

Öz

Education is a crucial driver of human capital, economic growth, and social development, transmitting cultural values and shaping societal attitudes. Recognized as a quasi-public good, education requires both public and private funding, with the public sector ensuring the provision of its broad societal benefits. However, efficient allocation and utilization of education budgets are pivotal, as expenditure alone does not guarantee improved outcomes. This study conducts a comparative analysis of Türkiye’s education expenditures, evaluating total spending, budget shares, and GDP proportions against the top ten OECD countries that performed best in the 2022 PISA rankings. The findings reveal that Türkiye’s education spending remains below the OECD average, with particularly low preschool participation rates. Despite this, Türkiye performs relatively well in science compared to its expenditure level, indicating efficiency gains in certain areas. By focusing not only on spending levels but also on efficiency in resource use, the study contributes to understanding how financial and structural factors jointly influence educational performance. The paper concludes with targeted policy implications—emphasizing expansion of preschool education, improved retention at the upper-secondary level, and enhanced public investment efficiency—to strengthen long-term educational outcomes and equity in Türkiye.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Education Expenditures
• Efficiency
• PISA Results

Kaynakça

1. Afsar, M. (2009). "The Relationship between Educational Investments and Economic Growth in Türkiye". Anadolu University Journal of Social Sciences. 9 (1), 85-98.
2. Akkoyunlu, F. (2005). Education and Economy. Filiz Kitabevi.
3. Altundemir, M. (2008). "Education Expenditures in Türkiye and OECD Countries". Journal of Uludag University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. 27 (2), 51-70.
4. Ayrangol, Z. (2014). "Comparative Analysis of Education Expenditures in Türkiye and OECD Countries". EUL Journal of Social Sciences. 5 (2), 1-30.
5. Barro, R. J. (2001). "Human Capital and Growth." American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 91(2), 12–17.
6. Becker, G. S. (1993). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
7. Benson, C. (1987). Educational financing, Economics of Education Research and Studies. Washington, DC, USA: The World Bank.
8. Blankenaua, W., & Simpson, N. B. (2004). "Public Education Expenditures and Growth". Journal of Development Economics. 583-605.

9. Calcali, O. (2019). "The Development of Public Education Expenditures in Türkiye and PISA Efficiency Comparison with OECD Countries". Journal of Çankırı Karatekin University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. 9 (2), 449-474.
10. Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). "Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy Evidence". Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1), 1–44.
11. Eğilmez, M. (2020). Türkiye Ekonomisi. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.
12. Gavurova, B., Kocisova, K., Belas, L. & Krajcik, V. (2017). "Relative Efficiency of Government Expenditure on Secondary Education". Journal of International Studies. 10 (2), 329-343.
13. Gloom, G., & Ravikumar, B. (1998). "Flat-rate Taxes, Government Spending on Education and Growth". Review of Economic Dynamics". 1 (1), 306-325.
14. Gruber, J. (2012). Public Finance and Public Policy (4th ed.). A Macmillan Higher Education Company.
15. Gungor, G., & Goksu, A. (2013). "Financing Education in Türkiye and a Cross-country Comparison". Management and Economics: Journal of Celal Bayar University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. 20 (1), 59-72.
16. Hanushek, E. A., & Kimko, D. D. (2000). "Schooling, Labor-Force Quality, and the Growth of Nations." American Economic Review, 90(5), 1184–1208.
17. Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2015). The Knowledge Capital of Nations: Education and the Economics of Growth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
18. Heckman, J. J. (2006). "Skill Formation and the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged Children." Science, 312(5782), 190–195.
19. Karamustafaoglu, O., Ileri, T. & Ahiska, A. R. (2017). "Comparison of Pisa 2012-2015 Results with Turkey and Estonia and Finland". International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications. 8 (2), 10-18.
20. Kilicaslan, H. & Yavuz, H. (2019). "PISA Results and Education Expenditures in Türkiye". Bilgi Journal of Social Sciences. 21 (2), 296-319.
21. Kirmanoglu, H. (2019). Public Economic Analysis (7th ed.). Beta Publishing House.
22. Kiziloluk, H. (2007). "The Effects of Economics on the Aims and Content of Education". C.Ü. Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences. 8 (1), 21-30.
23. Konan, N., Cetin, R. B. & Bozanoglu, B. (2018). "Selecting, Recruiting and Delegating Headteachers in Successful Countries of PISA". Journal of Contemporary Administrative Science. 2 (5), 141-157.
24. McMahon, W. (2010). "The External Benefits of Education". International Encyclopedia of Education. 260-271, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-044894-7.01226-4.
25. MEB. (2019). 2018/19 National Education Statistics Formal Education.
26. MEB. (2023, Dec 5). 2022 PISA Results. https://pisa.meb.gov.tr/www/pisa-2022-turkiye-raporu-yayimlandi/icerik/11 (Access: 12.02.2025).
27. Ministry of Treasury and Finance. (2021, Oct 9). 2022 Budget Justification. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/2022_Yili_Butce_Gerekcesi.pdf (Access: 12.02.2025).
28. Musgrave, R. (2004). A Review of Public Finance Theory in the Field of Public Economics. Ankara: Asil Publication Distribution.
29. OECD. (2019). PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations. Paris: OECD Publishing.
30. OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 Results: The State of Learning and Equity in Education. Paris: PISA OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.
31. OECD. (2025). Data. https://www.oecd.org/en/data/indicators.html?orderBy=mostRelevant&page=0 (Access: 02.02.2025).
32. Omur, O. (2016). "Education and Related Expenditures as Forms of Public Goods and Services: A Comparison of Turkey with OECD Countries". MCBÜ Journal of Social Sciences". 14 (4), 129-160.
33. Ortac, R. (2003). "Education Expenditures in the 80th Year of the Republic". G.Ü. İ.İ.B.F Journal. 239-247.
34. Pamuk, M., & Bektas, H. (2014). "The Relationship between Education Expenditures and Economic Growth in Türkiye: An ARDL Bounds test Approach". Journal of Politics, Economics and Management Research. 2 (2), 77-90.
35. Presidency, S. V. (2022, Oct 1). 2022 Performance Program. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/2022-yili-Performans-Programi_31012022.pdf (Access: 10.02.2025).
36. Sahlberg, P. (2011). Finnish Lessons: What Can the World Learn from Educational Change in Finland?. New York: Teachers College Press.
37. Saruc, N. (2011). "Higher Education Financing and Perceived Fairness Level of Financing Methods: Sakarya University Stakeholder Views". Journal of Finance. (161), 64-75.
38. Schultz, T. W. (1961). "Investment in Human Capital." American Economic Review, 51(1), 1–17.
39. Strategy and Budget Directorate of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey. (2023). 2022 General Activity Report. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/butce-genel-faaliyet-raporlari/ (Access: 10.02.2025).
40. Tas, U. E., Arici, O., Ozarkan, H. B., & Ozgurluk, B. (2016). PISA 2015 National Preliminary Report. MEB.
41. Tanilli, S. (1988). What Kind of Education do We Want?. Amac Publishing.
42. Tansel, A. (1998). Determinants of School Attainment of Boys and Girls in Turkey. Center Discussion Paper, No. 789, Yale University, Economic Growth Center, New Haven, CT.
43. TUIK. (2023). National Education Statistics, 2022. https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Ulusal-Egitim-Istatistikleri-2022-49756 (Access: 02.02.2025).
44. TUIK, (2025), Ulusal Hesaplar. https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Kategori/GetKategori?p=Ulusal-Hesaplar-113 (Access: 02.02.2025).
45. UNDP. (2022). Human Development Report 2021/2022. https://www.undp.org/tr/turkiye/publications/2022-insani-gelisme-raporu (Access: 02.02.2025).
46. UNDP. (2025). Human Development Index (HDI), https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI (31.10.2025).
47. Watts, A. (1983). Education, Unemployment and the Future of Work. England: Open University Press.
48. World Bank. (2024). World Development Indicators: Education Statistics. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
49. World Bank. (2025). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?end=2024&start=1960&view=chart (Access: 25.10.2025).
50. Yorulmaz, Y. I., Colak, I., & Ekinci, C. E. (2017). "An Evaluation of PISA 2015 Achievements of OECD Countries within Income Distribution and Education Expenditures". Turkish Journal of Education. 6 (4), 169-185.