SİBER SAVAŞI YENİDEN DÜŞÜNMEK: ZAMANSIZ, KURALSIZ VE SINIRSIZ

Yıl 2018, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 9, 195 - 214, 01.03.2018

Pınar Akarçay Gökhan Ak

Öz

Sibernetikteki gelişmeler, yaşamın her alanında uzun erişimli değişiklikler meydana getirmiştir. Böylece, 1950’lerden sonraki bilimsel-teknolojik ilerlemeler, ulusal güvenliğin de kendisinden oldukça etkilendiği, “bilgi devrimi”ne yol açmıştır. Bilgi-işlem alanındaki hızlı gelişme, siber alem olarak bilinen yeni bir fantastik dünya yaratmıştır. Bir fenomen olarak siber alem, büyük imkan ve avantajlarının yanında bilinmedik riskleri de içerisinde barındırma potansiyeline sahiptir. Hepsi siber alem ile ilgili olmak üzere üç ana kısım mevcuttur: teknolojiler, siyasalar ve anlaşmazlıklar. Sanal bir siber savaş veya herhangi bir ülkenin vatandaşlarına karşı girişilebilecek bireysel bir siber saldırının yapabileceği gerçek hasarın analizi için, bu fenomeni tam olarak anlayabilmemize yardımcı olabilecek türden bazı etkileri analiz, bunun Pratik sonuçları ile başlamak temel bir gerekliliktir. Siber alem birbiriyle çelişkili bir çok konu içerdiğinden, aslında tamemen gizli bir alanda yeni savaşma normları, araçları ve teknikleri üretmek oldukça zor bir konudur. Siber saldıranlar, kendilerinin kim olduğunu belirtmez ve kurbanlar da kendilerinin saldırılara açık olduğunu kabule pek yanaşmazlar. Bu çerçevede, bu çalışma özellikle zamansız, kuralsız ve sınırsız özelliklere sahip siber savaşı, siber alem fenomeni bağlamında, tarihsel, içerik, ilgili yeni gelişen siyasalar ve ulusal güvenlik sorunuyla olan ilişkisine odaklanarak inceleyecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Siber Dünya, Sibernetik, Siber Savaş, Siber Saldırı, Ulusal Güvenlik

RETHINKING CYBER WARFARE: TIMELESS, NORMLESS AND UNCONSTRAINED

Öz

Improvements in cybernetics have made likely far reaching shifts in all areas of life. Thus, the scientific-technological developments after 1950s gave rise to “the information revolution” from which national security has quite been affected as well. The rapid growth in the fields of computing created a new realm of fantasy called cyberspace. As a phenomenon, cyberspace has the potential for enormous avails and advantages as well as unpredictable risks. There are three major dimensions all associated with cyberspace: technologies, policies and disputes. In order to analyze the real damage that a hypothetical cyber-war or individual act of cyber warfare could do to the citizens of any nation coming under attack, it is fundamental to begin with some reflections which will help us reach a full understanding of the phenomenon, and its related practical implications as well as impacts. Since cyberspace comprises many complicating matters, it is a further difficulty of developing new combative techniques, tools and norms in an area that is inherently secretive. Cyber-attackers do not announce who they are and the victims may not want to admit having been vulnerable. By this view, this research will specifically examine timeless, normless and unconstrained cyber warfare by rethinking its history, content, associated emerging policies and focus on the question of national security in light of the cyberspace phenomenon.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Cyberspace, Cybernetics, Cyber Warfare, Cyber-Attack, National Security

Kaynakça

• CARVALHO, F. Duarte and Da SILVA, E. Mateus, Cyberwar-Netwar: Security in the Information Age, IOS Press, Amsterdam, 2006.
• CLARKE, Richard A. and KNAKE, Rob, Cyberwar: The Next Threat to National Security and What to Do About It, Harper Collins, New York, NY, 2010.
• COLMAN, Andrew M., A Dictionary of Psychology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2009.
• GOLDSMITH, Jack L. and WU, Tim, Who Controls the Internet?: Illusions of a Borderless World, Oxford University Press, New York, 2006.
• GRAY, Colin, Modern Strategy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999.
• HUGO, Victor, The History of a Crime, T.H. Joyce and Arthur Locker (trans.), Nabu Press, Charleston, SC, 2010.
• JOHNSON, Stuart E. and LIBICKI, Martin C., Dominant Battlespace Knowledge: The Winning Edge, National Defense University Press, Washington, D.C., 1995.
• KREPINEVICHP, Andrew F., Cyber Warfare: A “Nuclear Option”?, Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, Washington D.C., 2012.
• LESSIG, Lawrence, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace, Basic Books, New York, 1999.
• MAZANEC, Brian M., The Evolution of Cyber War, University of Nebraska Press, Nebraska, 2015.
• NYE, Joseph S., Cyber Power, Harvard Kennedy School, Cambridge, MA, 2010.
• O’HANLON, Michael E., Technological Change and the Future of Warfare, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 2000.
• O’HARROW, Robert, Zero Day: The Threat in Cyberspace, Diversion Books, New York, 2013.
• OHLIN, Jens David, GOVERN, Kevin and FINKELSTEIN, Claire, Cyberwar: Law and Ethics for Virtual Conflicts, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2015.
• ROBERTS, Adam and GUELFF, Richard, Documents on the Laws of War, 3rd Ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000.
• SCHMITT, Michael N. (Ed.), Tallinn Manual on The International Law Applicable to Cyberwarfare, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 2013.
• SINGER, Peter W. and FRIEDMAN, Allan, Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., 2014.
• WIENER, Norbert, Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1955.
• Articles, Papers, Reports and Thesis Additional Protocol 1 (1977) to the Geneva Conventions 1949.
• ALFORD, Lionel D., “Cyber Warfare: A New Doctrine and Taxonomy”, Crosstalk: Journal of Defense Software Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 4, 2001, pp. 27–30.
• ASHMORE, William C., “Impact of Alleged Russian Cyber Attacks”, Baltic Security & Defence Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2009, pp. 4-40.
• BEN-ISRAEL, Isaac, “Security, Technology, and the Future Battlefield,” in Haggai Golan, ed., The Texture of Security, Maarachot, Tel Aviv, 2001, pp. 269-327.
• BEN-ISRAEL, Isaac, “From the Sword’s Blade to Computer Memory”, Odyssey, No. 9, October 2010, pp. 4-13.
• BLANK, Stephen, “Can Information Warfare Be Deterred?”, Defense Analysis, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2001, pp. 121-138.
• BRECHBÜHL, Hans, BRUCE, Robert, DYNES, Scott and JOHNSON, M. Eric, “Protecting Critical Information Infrastructure: Developing Cybersecurity Policy”, Information Technology for Development, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2010, pp. 83-91.
• CETRON, Marvin J. and DAVIES, Owen, “Ten Critical Trends for Cyber Security”, The Futurist, Vol. 43, No. 5, 2009, pp. 40-49.
• CORNISH, Paul, “The Vulnerabilities of Developed States to Economic Cyber Warfare”, Chatham House Working Paper, London, June 2011, pp. 1-15.
• CORNISH, Paul and DORMAN, Andrew, “Dr. Fox and the Philosopher's Stone: The Alchemy of National Defence in the Age of Austerity”, International Affairs, Vol. 87, No. 2, March 2011, pp. 335-353.
• FLOWERS, Angelyn and ZEADALLY, Sherali, “Cyberwar: The What, When, Why, and How”, IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, Vol. 33, No. 3, Fall 2014, pp. 14-21.
• GJELTEN, Tom, “Shadow Wars: Debating Cyber Disarmament”, World Affairs, Vol. 173, No. 4, November/December 2010, pp. 33-42.
• GREATHOUSE, Craig B., “Cyber War and Strategic Thought: Do the Classic Theorists Still Matter?”, In. J.-F. Kremer and B. Müller (eds.), Cyberspace and International Relations, SpringerVerlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2014, pp. 21-40.
• HEALEY, Jason, “Cyber Warfare in the 21st Century: Threats, Challenges, and Opportunities”, Hearing on “Cyber Warfare in the 21st Century: Threats, Challenges, and Opportunities” before the Committee on Armed Services, United States House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifteenth Congress, First Session, March 1, 2017, pp. 1-35.
• Home Security Newswire, “Hamas, Hezbollah Employ Russian Hackers for Cyber Attacks on Israel”, Homeland Security News, 15 June 2009.
• International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “Cyber Warfare and International Humanitarian Law: The ICRC’s Position”, ICRC Food-for-Thought Paper, June 2013, pp. 1-4.
• JENSEN, Eric Talbot, “Cyber Warfare and Precautions Against the Effects of Attacks”, Texas Law Review, No. 88, 2010, pp. 1533-1569.
• JERVIS, Robert, “Cooperation under the Security Dilemma”, World Politics, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1978, pp. 167-214.
• KLIMBURG, Alexander, “Mobilising Cyber Power”, Survival, Vol. 53, No. 1, 2011, pp. 41-60.
• LESK, Michael, “The new front line: Estonia under cyberassault”, IEEE Security and Privacy, Vol. 5, No. 4, July-Aug. 2007, pp. 76-79.
• LEWIS, James A., “Cyberwar thresholds and effects”, IEEE Security and Privacy, Vol. 9, No. 5, Sept./Oct. 2011, pp. 23-29.
• MANSON, III, George Patterson, “Cyberwar: The United States and China Prepare for the Next Generation of Conflict”, Comparative Strategy, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2011, pp. 121-133.
• MOURA, G. Moreira, “Internet Bad Neighborhoods”, Published Doctorate Dissertation, University of Twente, Overijssel, The Netherlands, 2013.
• OBAMA, Barak, “Executive Order 13636: Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity”, Federal Register, Vol. 78, No. 33, Part III, Feb. 19, 2013.
• PHILBRICK, Ian Prasad (Ed), “International Engagement on Cyber VI: Forum: The Role of Strategy in Securing a Nation in the Cyber Domain”, Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 17, No. 3, Fall/Winter 2016, pp. 1-109.
• RIMM, Harry H., MICHAEL, Charles and MASTER, Howard (Rapporteurs), “Cyber-War and the Law of Armed Conflict”, The United States Courts for the Second Circuit 2014 Judicial Conference on Cyber-Security in the Age of Cyber-Terrorism (11-13 June 2014, Saratoga Springs, New York), Second Circuit Judicial Conference Report of Proceedings, New York, 2015, pp. 21-24.
• SALEEM, Muhammad and HASSAN, Jawad, ““Cyber warfare”, the truth in a real case”, Project Report for Information Security Course, University of Linköping, Sweden, 2009, pp. 1-7.
• SCHREIER, Fred, “On Cyberwarfare”, DCAF Horizon 2015 Working Paper No. 7, The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), Geneva, 2013, pp. 1-133.
• SCHMITT, Michael N., “Computer Network Attack and the Use of Force in International Law: Thoughts on a Normative Framework”, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, No. 37, 1999, pp. 885-937.
• SOMMER, Peter, “Intrusion Detection Systems as Evidence”, First International Workshop on Recent Advances in Intrusion Detection, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, 1998.
• SOMMER, Peter, “The Future for the Policing of Cybercrime”, Computer Fraud and Security, No. 1, 2004, pp. 8-12.
• SOMMER, Peter and HOSEIN, Gus, “Briefing on the Interception Modernisation Programme”, LSE Policy Engagement Network, London, 2009, pp. 1-59.
• TABANSKY, Lior, “Basic Concepts in Cyber Warfare”, Military and Strategic Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 1, May 2011, pp. 75-92.
• UK Office of Cyber Security, “Cyber Security Strategy of the United Kingdom: Safety, Security and Resilience in Cyber Space”, Parliament Command Paper 7642, London, 2009. WARFIELD, Douglas, “Critical Infrastructures: IT Security and Threats from Private Sector Ownership”, Information Security Journal: A Global Perspective, Vol. 21, No. 3, 2012, pp. 127-136.
• Internet Sources ARNOLDY, Ben, “Cyberspace: New Frontier in Conflicts, Internet Attacks on Georgia Expose a Key Flaw for More than 100 natİons”, Christian Science Monitor, 13 August 2008. Available at: http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2008/0813/p01s05-usmi.html (Visited on 11 January 2018)
• CORNISH, Paul, LIVINGSTONE, David, CLEMENTE, Dave and YORKE, Claire, “On Cyber War”, Chatham House Working Paper, London, 2010. Available at: http://www.chathamhouse.org/ publications/papers/view/109508 (Visited on 28 December 2017)
• CRESSWELL, Julia, Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins, “cybernetics.” Oxford Reference Online, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Available at: http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html? subview=Main&entry=t292.e1374 (Visited on 06 January 2018)
• DANCHEV, Dancho, “Seven myths about zero day vulnerabilities debunked”, 3 August 2010.
• Available at: http://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/seven-myths-about-zero-day-vulnerabilities debunked/7026?tag=mantle_skin%3Bcontent (Visited on 18 January 2018) Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010, “space,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
• Available at: http:// www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557313/space (Visited on 06 January 2018)
• FALLIERE, Nicholas, “Exploring Stuxnet’s PLC Infection Process”, 2010. Available at: http://www.symantec.com/connect/blogs/exploring-stuxnet-s-plc-infection-process (Visited on 01 February 2018)
• GEERS, Kenneth, “Sun Tzu and Cyber War”, Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, 2011. Available at: http://www.ccdcoe.org/articles/2011/Geers_SunTzuandCyberWar.pdf (Visited on 02 January 2018)
• GORMAN, Siobhan, “Electricity Grid in U.S. Penetrated By Spies”, The Wall Street Journal, 8 April 2009. Available at: http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123914805204099085.html (Visited on 05 January 2018)
• HADDICK, Robert, “This Week at War: Lessons from Cyberwar I”, Foreign Policy, Jan. 28, 2011.
• Available at: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/01/28/this_week_at_war_lessons_from_ cyberwar_i?print=yes& hidecomments=yes&page=full (Visited on 18 January 2018)
• HM (Her Majesty) Government, “A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy”, TSO, Cm 7953, October 2010, London, pp. 1-39. Available at: http://www.officialdocuments.gov.uk/ (Visited on 22 January 2018)
• HOLLIS, David, “Cyberwar Case Study: Georgia 2008”, Small Wars Journal, Jan. 6, 2011, pp. 1-10.
• Available at: http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/2011/ (Visited on 05 January 2018) House of Lords European Union Committee, “Protecting Europe against Large-scale Cyber-attacks”, HL Paper 68, The Stationary Office, London, 2010.
• Idaho National Laboratory, “NSTB Assessments Summary Report: Common Industrial Control System Cyber Security Weaknesses”, May 2010. Available at: http://www.fas.org/sgp/eprint/nstb.pdf (Visited on 02 February 2018)
• International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “What Limits Does the Law of War Impose on Cyber Attacks?”, 2013. Available at: https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/faq/130628- cyber-warfare-q-and-a-eng.htm (Visited on 11 January 2018)
• KILLEBREW, Bob, “Russia-Georgia: Early Take”, Small Wars Journal, Aug. 15, 2008. Available at: http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/2008/08/russiageorgia-the-impact-first/ (Visited on 14 January 2018)
• LIAROPOULOS, Andrew, “Cyber-Security and the law of War: The Legal and Ethical Aspects of Cyber-Conflict”, GPSC Working Paper # 7, 2011. Available at: http://www.gpsg.org.uk/docs/GPSG_Working_Paper_07.pdf (Visited on 09 December 2017)
• LIBICKI, Martin C., “Cyberdeterrence and Cyberwar”, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, 2009.
• Available at: http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG877.pdf (Visited on 21 January 2018)
• MELE, Stefano, “Cyber Warfare and Its Damaging Effects on Citizens”, September 2010, pp. 1-19.
• Available at: http://stefanomele.it/public/documenti/185DOC-937.pdf (Visited on 11 January 2018)
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), “Defending Against Cyber Attacks”, May 2008.
• Available at: www.nato.int/issues/cyber_defence/practice.html (Visited on 23 January 2018)
• OLTSIK, Jon, “Russian Cyber Attack on Georgia: Lessons Learned?”, Network World, 17 August 2009. Available at: http://www.networkworld.com/community/node/44448 (Visited on 11 January 2018)
• O’MURCHU, Liam, “An in depth look into Stuxnet”, 2010. Available at: http://www.virusbtn. com/conference/vb2010/abstracts/LastMinute7.xml (Visited on 24 December 2017)
• SAAD, Sabrine, BAZAN, Stéphane, ETIENNE, Lorraine and VARIN, Christophe, “Asymmetric Cyber-warfare between Israel and Hezbollah: The Web as a New Strategic
• Battlefield”, Proceedings of the ACM WebSci’11, Koblenz/Germany, 14-17 June 2011. Available at: http://www.websci11.org/fileadmin/websci/Posters/96_paper.pdf (Visited on 18 January 2018)
• SHACHTMAN, Noah, “Georgia Under Online Assault”, Wired Danger Room Magazine, 10 August 2008. Available at: https://www.wired.com/2008/08/georgia-under-o/ (Visited on 11 January 2018)
• SHACHTMAN, Noah, “Top Georgian Official: Moscow Cyber Attacked Us – We Just Can’t Prove It”, Wired Danger Room Magazine, 11 March 2009. Available at: http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2009/03/georgia-blames/ (Visited on 11 January 2018)
• SOMMER, Peter and BROWN, Ian, “Reducing Systemic Cybersecurity Risk”, OECD/IFP Project on “Future Global Shocks”, Report for OECD Multi-Disciplinary Issues International Futures Programme, 14 January 2011, pp. 1-119. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/gov/risk/46889922.pdf (Visited on 04 January 2018)
• STAMP, Jason, DILLINGER, John, YOUNG, William and DEPOY, Jennifer, “Common vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure control systems”, November 2003. Available at: http://www.sandia.gov/ccss/documents/031172C.pdf (Visited on 14 January 2018)
• Times of India, “Cyber War: Indian Army Gearing Up”, 19 July 2010. Available at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/6187297.cms?prtpage=1 (Visited on 01 February 2018)
• UK Cabinet Office, “Strategic Framework and Policy Statement on Improving the Resilience of Critical Infrastructure to Disruption from Natural Hazards”, 2009. Available at: www.cabinet office.gov.uk/media/349103/strategic-framework.pdf (Visited on 18 January 2018)
• U.S. Department of Defense, “Fact Sheet: The Department of Defense (DoD) Cyber Strategy”, April 2015, pp. 1-2. Available at: https://www.defense.gov/News/Special-Reports/0415_Cyber-Strategy/ (Visited on 14 February 2018)
• U.S. Department of Defense, “U.S. Cyber Command Cyber Guard 15 Fact Sheet”, 01 July 2015, pp. 1-4. Available at: https://www.defense.gov/News/Special-Reports/0415_Cyber-Strategy/ (Visited on 14 February 2018)
• U.S. Department of Defense, “The Department of Defense Cyber Strategy”, April 2015, pp. 1-42. Available at: https://www.defense.gov/News/Special-Reports/0415_Cyber-Strategy/ (Visited on 14 February 2018)
• US Secretary of Defense, “Establishment of a Subordinate Unified U.S. Cyber Command Under U.S. Strategic Command for Military Cyberspace Operations”, Memorandum dated June 23, 2009.
• Available at: www.govexec.com/nextgov/0609/gates_cybercommand_memo.pdf (Visited on 23 January 2018)
• United States Presidency, “International Strategy for Cyberspace”, May 2011, pp. 1-30. Available at: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/international_strategy_for_cybe rspace.pdf (Visited on 29 January 2018)