A Possible Constitutional Design for Peacebuilding in Syria

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2, 523 - 571, 30.09.2023

Salim Orhan

https://doi.org/10.58733/imhfd.1357948

Öz

Syria has been experiencing a civil war involving many actors with different expectations and goals since 2011. Although there are many socio-economic and political reasons for this war, which has cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of people, the main determining reason is the ethno-sectarian policies that the authoritarian regime in Syria has implemented for decades. Attempts for a new constitutional order and resolution mechanisms in order to end the conflicts and build peace in Syria have started since the outbreak of the war. However, these efforts and attempts have not yet produced a positive result for peacebuilding and constitutional design. This article aims to examine the basic principles of a possible constitutional design and peace agreement that will end these conflicts and establish peace, democracy, and stability through examining the general structure and characteristics of war and conflicts in Syria, as well as their historical and social causes. In this context, the first part of this study conducts a general review of constitutional design and peacebuilding in conflicted/divided societies. The second part analyzes the structure, actors, and societal characteristics of conflicts in Syria, along with its historical and political background. Efforts related to conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and constitutional design in Syria will also be discussed. At the end of this part, a connection will be made between the main principles of a constitutional design facilitating the transition from conflict to peace in Syria and the general review presented in the first part for divided societies.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Syria, Divided Societies, Constitutional Design, Peacebuilding, Conflict Resolution

Suriye’de Barış İnşası İçin Muhtemel Bir Anayasal Tasarım

Öz

Suriye’de 2011 yılından bu yana farklı beklenti ve hedeflere sahip birçok aktörün dahil olduğu bir iç savaş yaşanmaktadır. Yüzbinlerce insanın hayatına mal olan bu savaş ve çatışmaların sosyoekonomik ve politik birçok nedeni olmakla birlikte esas belirleyici nedenini, Suriye’deki otoriter rejimin on yıllardan beri uygulamış olduğu etno-mezhepsel politikalar oluşturmaktadır. Suriye’deki çatışmaların sona erdirilmesi ve barışın sağlanması için çözüm mekanizmalarına ve yeni bir anayasal düzene yönelik çabalar, savaşın patlak vermesinden itibaren başlamıştır. Ancak bu çaba ve girişimler henüz barış inşası ve anayasal tasarım adına olumlu bir sonuç vermemiştir. Bu makale, Suriye’deki savaşın ve çatışmaların genel yapısını ve niteliklerini, tarihsel ve toplumsal nedenlerini analiz ederek bu çatışmaları sonlandıracak, barış, demokrasi ve istikrarı inşa edecek olası bir anayasal tasarımın ve barış anlaşmasının temel ilkelerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda, Suriye’nin muhtemel bir barış inşası ve anayasal tasarımı için teorik bir zemin sunması maksadıyla bu çalışmanın ilk bölümünde çatışmalı ve/veya bölünmüş toplumlarda anayasal tasarım ve barış inşasına yönelik genel bir inceleme yapılacaktır. İkinci bölümde ise ilk olarak Suriye’deki çatışmaların genel yapısı, aktörleri ve toplumsal nitelikleri analiz edildikten sonra tarihsel ve siyasal arka planına bakılacaktır. Akabinde Suriye’de çatışma çözümü, barış inşası ve anayasal tasarıma yönelik çabalar ele alınacaktır. Bu kısmın sonunda Suriye’de çatışmadan barışa geçişi sağlayacak bir barış antlaşmasının ve anayasal tasarımın temel çerçevesi/ilkeleri ile ilk bölümde sunulan genel inceleme arasında bağ kurulacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Suriye, Bölünmüş Toplumlar, Anayasal Tasarım, Barış İnşası, Çatışma Çözümü

Kaynakça

• ALDOUGHLI, Rahaf, “What is Syrian nationalism? Primordialism and romanticism in official Baath discourse”, Nations and Nationalism, Y. 2022, C. 28, S. 1, ss. 125-140.
• Amnesty International, “Amnesty International Report 2009, Syria”, Amnesty International, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/033/2009/en/, E.T. 10.01.2023.
• BACHLEITNER, Kathrin / MATTHIESEN, Toby, “Introduction to themed section on ‘Belonging to Syria. National identifications before and after 2011”, Nations and Nationalism, Y. 2022, C. 28, S. 1, ss. 117-124.
• BALANCHE, Fabrice, Sectarianism in Syria’s Civil War, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington, DC, 2018.
• BALI, Aslı / LERNER, Hanna, “Constitutional Design Without Constitutional Moments: Lessons from Religiously Divided Societies”, Cornell International Law Journal, Y. 2016. C. 49, S. 2, ss. 227-308.
• BBC News, “Syria protests: Bashar al-Assad lifts emergency law”, BBC News, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13161329, E.T. 12.02.2023.
• BBC News, “Syria War: UN Calculates New Death Toll”, BBC News, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-58664859, E.T. 07.12.2022.
• BELLIN, Eva, “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring”, Comparative Politics, Y. 2012, C. 44, S. 2, ss. 127-149.
• BELMONT, Katharine / MAINWARING, Mainwaring / REYNOLDS Andrew: “Institutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy”, The Architecture of Democracy: Constitutional Design, Conflict
• Management, and Democracy, Ed. Andrew REYNOLDS, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002, ss. 1-11.
• BENOMAR, Jamal, “Constitution-Making After Conflict: Lessons for Iraq”, Journal of Democracy, Y. 2004, C. 15, S. 2, ss. 81-95.
• CHARBONNEAU, Louis, “Syria Conflict Now a Civil War, U.N. Peacekeeping Chief Says”, Reuters, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-un-idUSBRE85B11V20120612, E.T. 10.12.2022.
• CHOUDHRY, Sujit, “Bridging Comparative Politics and Comparative Constitutional Law: Constitutional Design in Divided Societies”, Constitutional Design for Divided Societies: Integration or Accommodation?, Ed. Sujit CHOUDHRY, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, ss. 3-40.
• ConstitutionNet: Supporting Constitution Builders Globally, “Constitutional History of Syria”, (Çevrimiçi) https://constitutionnet.org/country/syria#fn11, E.T. 19.11.2022.
• DAHER, Joseph, “Syria: The Social Origins of the Uprising”, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.rosalux.de/en/publication/id/39149/syria-the-social-origins-of-the-uprising, E.T. 10.02.2023.
• DOPPELHOFER, Christoph, “Will Palmyra rise again? - War Crimes against Cultural Heritage and Post-war reconstruction”, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/CulturalRights/DestructionHeritage/NGOS/Ch.Doppelhofer.pdf, E.T. 21.12.2022.
• European Asylum Support Office (EASO), Syria Actors - Country of Origin Information Report, s. 59-60, (Çevrimiçi) https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2019_12_EASO_COI_Report_Syria_Actors.pdf, E.T. 29.12.2022.
• FELDMAN, Noah, The Arab Winter: A Tragedy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2020.
• France 24, “Syria’s Kurds protest exclusion from constitutional committee”, France 24, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.france24.com/en/20191002-syria-s-kurds-protest-exclusion-from-constitutional-committee, E.T. 17.02.2023.
• GALTUNG, Johan, “Violence, Peace, and Peace Research”, Journal of Peace Research, Y. 1969, C. 6, S. 3, ss. 169-191.
• GOUREVITCH, Philip, “The Arab Winter”, The New Yorker, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-arab-winter, E.T.14.11.2022.
• HART, Vivien, “Constitution-Making and the Transformation of Conflict”, Peace & Change, Y.2001, C. 26, S. 2, ss. 153-176.
• HAUCH, Lars, Mixing politics and force: Syria’s Constitutional Committee in Review, Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ CRU Report 2020, s. 5, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/2020-08/the-politics-of-syrias-constitutional-committee.pdf, E.T. 17.12.2022.
• HEYDEMANN, Steven, “The Syrian Conflict: Proxy War, Pyrrhic Victory, and Power Sharing Agreements”, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Y. 2020, C. 20, S. 2, ss. 153-160.
• HEYDEMANN, Steven, Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946-1970, Cornell University Press, New York, 1999.
• HOROWITZ, Donald L., “Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers”, Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies, Ed. Joseph V. Montville, Lexington Books, Pennsylvania, 1990.
• Illinois Library, “The Syrian Conflict: Foreign States”, Illinois Library, (Çevrimiçi) https://guides.library.illinois.edu/Syria/Foreign, E.T. 28.11.2022;
• Illinois Library, “The Syrian Conflict: Islamist Opposition”, Illinois Library, (Çevrimiçi) https://guides.library.illinois.edu/Syria/Islamist, E.T. 29.11.2022.
• Illinois Library, “The Syrian Conflict: Kurdish Forces”, Illinois Library, (Çevrimiçi) https://guides.library.illinois.edu/Syria/Kurds, E.T. 29.11.2022.
• Illinois Library, “The Syrian Conflict: Non-Islamist Opposition”, Illinois Library, (Çevrimiçi) https://guides.library.illinois.edu/Syria/Non-Islamist, E.T. 29.11.2022.
• Illinois Library, “The Syrian Conflict: Pro-Assad Forces”, Illinois Library, (Çevrimiçi) https://guides.library.illinois.edu/Syria/Pro-Assad, E.T. 28.11.2022.
• IZADY, Michael, Infographs, Maps and Statistics Collection (Columbia University, Gulf 2000 Project: 2006-present), (Çevrimiçi) https://gulf2000.columbia.edu/images/maps/Syria_Ethnic_summary_lg.png, E.T. 20.12.2022.
• KHALIFA, Mustafa, “The impossible partition of Syria”, Arab Reform Initiative, (Çevrimiçi) https://s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/storage.arab-reform.net/ari/2013/10/02101305/Arab_Reform_Initiative_2013-10_Research_Paper_en_the_impossible_partition_of_syria.pdf, E.T. 15.11.2022.
• LERNER, Hanna, “Constitution-writing in deeply divided societies: the incrementalist approach”, Nations and Nationalism, Y. 2010, C. 16, S. 1, ss. 68-88.
• LERNER, Hanna, Making Constitutions in Deeply Divided Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
• LIJPHART, Arend, “Majority Rule versus Democracy in Deeply Divided Societies”, Politikon, Y. 1977, C. 4, S. 2, ss. 113-126.
• LIJPHART, Arend, “The Wave of Power-Sharing Democracy”, The Architecture of Democracy: Constitutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy, Ed. Andrew REYNOLDS, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002.
• LIJPHART, Arend, “Constitutional Design for Divided Societies”, Journal of Democracy, Y. 2004, C. 15, S. 2, ss. 96-109.
• LIJPHART, Arend, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration, Yale University Press, London, 1977.
• LIJPHART, Arend, Power-Sharing in South Africa, University of California Press, Oakland/California, 1985.
• LIJPHART, Arend, Thinking About Democracy: Power Sharing and Majority Rule in Theory and Practice, Routledge, Abingdon/OX, 2008.
• LOWE, Robert, “The Emergence of Western Kurdistan and the Future of Syria”, Conflict, Democratization, and the Kurds in the Middle East, Ed. David ROMANO / Mehmet GURSES, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2014, ss. 225-246.
• LUNDGREN, Magnus, “Mediation in Syria: initiatives, strategies, and obstacles, 2011–2016”, Contemporary Security Policy, Y. 2016, C. 37, S. 2, ss. 273-288.
• MABON, Simon / MCCULLOCH, Allison, “Power-Sharing: Why is it still central in the efforts to end the wars in Syria and Yemen?”, The Foreign Policy Centre, (Çevirimiçi) https://fpc.org.uk/power-sharing-why-is-it-still-central-in-the-efforts-to-end-the-wars-in-syria-and-yemen/, E.T. 17.11.2022.
• MAZUR, Kevin, “State Networks and Intra-Ethnic Group Variation in the 2011 Syrian Uprising”, Comparative Political Studies, Y. 2019, C. 52, S. 7, ss. 995-1027.
• MCCULLOCH, Allison, Power-Sharing and Political Stability in Deeply Divided Societies, Routledge, 2014.
• MCGARRY, John / O’LEARY, Brendan / SIMEON, Richard, “Integration or Accommodation? The Enduring Debate in Conflict Regulation”, Constitutional Design for Divided Societies: Integration or Accommodation?, Ed. Sujit CHOUDHRY, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, ss. 41-88.
• MCGARRY, John / O’LEARY, Brendan, “Iraq’s Constitution of 2005: Liberal Consociation as Political Prescription”, International Journal of Constitutional Law, Y. 2007, C. 5, S. 4, ss. 670-698.
• MICHIELS, Magali / KIZILKAYA Zafer, “Mediation in Syria: A Comparative Analysis of the Astana and the Geneva Processes”, Syria Studies, Interventions and Spill-overs: External Aspects of the Syrian Uprising, Y. 2022, C. 14, S. 1, ss. 1-40.
• NASROLLAH, Bashir / SHARIFA, Abbas / AL-ABDULLAH, Obada, “Map of Military Control in Syria End of 2021 and Beginning of 2022”, Jusoor for Studies, (Çevrimiçi) https://jusoor.co/en/details/map-of-military-control-in-syria-end-of-2021-and-beginning-of-2022, E. T. 05.01.2023.
• O’LEARY, Branden, “Power Sharing in Deeply Divided Places: An Advocate’s Introduction”, Power Sharing in Deeply Divided Places, Ed. Joanne MCEVOY / Brendan O’LEARY, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia/Pennsylvania, 2013, ss. 1-64.
• O’LEARY, Branden, “Power Sharing: An Advocate’s Conclusion”, Power Sharing in Deeply Divided Places, Ed. Joanne MCEVOY / Brendan O’LEARY, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia/Pennsylvania, 2013, s. 386-422.
• ORHAN, Salim, Bölünmüş Toplumlarda Anayasal Uzlaşı ve Demokrasi, Orion Kitabevi, Ankara, 2020.
• PEEL, Michael, “Assad’s Family Picked Up by the West’s Radar”, Financial Times, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.ft.com/content/05e5ffcc-70fa-11e0-962a-00144feabdc0, E.T. 05.02.2023.
• PIPES, Daniel, “The Alawi Capture of Power in Syria”, Middle Eastern Studies, Y. 1989, C. 25, S.4, ss. 429-450
• ROSINY, Stephan, Power Sharing in Syria: Lessons from Lebanon’s Experience, German Institute for Global and Area Studies, Hamburg, 2013, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.giga-hamburg.de/assets/pure/21214075/wp223_rosiny.pdf, E.T. 19.11.2022.
• SALAMEY, Imad / ABU-NIMER, Mohammed / ABOUAOUN, Elie, “Comparative Post-conflict Power Sharing Models for Syria”, Post-Conflict Power-Sharing Agreements: Options for Syria, Ed. Imad SALAMEY, Mohammed ABU-NIMER / Elie ABOUAOUN, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham/Switzerland, 2018, ss. 1-22.
• SALAMEY, Imad / RIZK, Samuel, “Ways Forward for Syria”, Post-Conflict Power-Sharing Agreements: Options for Syria, Ed. Imad SALAMEY, Mohammed ABU-NIMER / Elie ABOUAOUN, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham/Switzerland, 2018, ss. 149-164.
• SAMUELS, Kirsti / WYETH, Vanessa Hawkins, State-building and Constitutional Design after Conflict, International Peace Academy, New York, 2006.
• SAMUELS, Kirsti, “Post-Conflict Peace-Building and Constitution-Making”, Chicago Journal of International Law, Y. 2006, C. 6, S. 2, ss. 663-682.
• SAVELSBERG, Eva, “The Syrian-Kurdish Movements: Obstacles Rather Than Driving Forces for Democratization”, Conflict, Democratization, and the Kurds in the Middle East, Ed. David ROMANO / Mehmet GURSES, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2014, ss. 85-107.
• SCHNECKENER, Ulrich, “Making Power-Sharing Work: Lessons from Successes and Failures in Ethnic Conflict Regulation”, Journal of Peace Research, Y. 2002, C. 39, S. 2, ss. 203-228.
• SISK, Timothy D, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC, 1996.
• SLIM, Hugo / TROMBETTA, Lorenzo, Syria Crisis Common Context Analysis, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, New York, 2014.
• SOHR, “Syrian Revolution 11 years on | SOHR documents by names nearly 161,000 civilian deaths, including 40,500 children and women”, The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.syriahr.com/en/243125/, E.T. 07.12.2022.
• SPENCER, Robert, Arab Winter Comes to America: The Truth about the War We’re in, Regnery Publishing, Washington, DC, 2014.
• Syrians for Truth and Justice, “Racial Discrimination in The Syrian Constitution”, (Çevrimiçi) https://stj-sy.org/en/racial-discrimination-in-the-syrian-constitution/, E.T. 23.12.2022.
• TALHAMY, Yvette, “The Syrian Muslim Brothers and the Syrian-Iranian Relationship”, The Middle East Journal, Y. 2009, C. 63, S. 4, ss. 561-580.
• TAYLOR, Rupert, “Introduction: The Promise of Consociational Theory”, Consociational Theory: McGarry and O’Leary and Northern Ireland, Ed. Rupert TAYLOR, Routledge, 2009, ss. 1-11.
• The World Bank, “Population, total - Syrian Arab Republic”, The World Bank Data, (Çevrimiçi) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=SY, E.T. 19.11.2022.
• ÜNGÖR, Uğur Ümit, “Shabbiha: Paramilitary groups, mass violence and social polarization in Homs”, Violence: An International Journal, Y. 2020, C. 1, S. 1, ss. 59-79.
• UNHCR, “Global Trends Report 2021”, unhcr.org, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.unhcr.org/62a9d1494/global-trends-report-2021, E.T. 05.12.2022.
• UNHCR, “UNHCR Global Trends 2019”, unhcr.org, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.unhcr.org/statistics/unhcrstats/5ee200e37/unhcr-global-trends-2019.html, E.T. 05.12. 2022.
• UNSCR, “United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254 (2015)”, UNSCR, (Çevrimiçi) http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/2254, E.T. 21.11.2022.
• WIDNER, Jennifer, “Constitution writing and conflict resolution”, The Round Table, Y. 2005, C. 94, S. 381, ss. 503-518.
• WIDNER, Jennifer, “Constitution Writing in Post-conflict Settings: An Overview”, William & Mary Law Review, Y. 2008, C. 49, S. 4, ss. 1513-1541.
• WIMMEN, Heiko, “The Sectarianization of the Syrian War”, Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East, Ed. Frederic WEHREY, Oxford University Press, New York, 2018, ss. 61-85.
• WOLFF, Stefan, “Post-Conflict State Building: The Debate on Institutional Choice”, Third World Quarterly, Y. 2011, C. 32, S. 10, ss. 1777-1802.