The Gender Gap between Women’s Political Empowerment and the EU’s Climate Change

Öz

The European Union has significantly intensified its climate targets in response to growing environmental threats and economic instability. This study critically examines the impact of women’s political empower­ ment in EU member states during this critical period on the Union’s economic resilience and vulnerability to climate change. The research aims to demonstrate that increased female representation has a profound impact on climate policies, providing more effective and equitable responses to environmental challenges. This research, which synthesizes the findings of studies conducted across the EU, focuses on indicators such as the proportion of women in national parliaments and the European Parliament, levels of participation in environmental advocacy NGOs, and the allocation of public funds. These indicators have been linked to various climate policy outcomes, such as commitment to the economic goals of the European Green Deal, integration of climate issues into national budgets, and implementation of local adaptation strategies. The findings consistently show that the political empowerment of women has a significant and positive impact on climate policy outcomes within the EU. Specifically, increased female representation prioritizes the allocation of public funds toward climate education and resilient infra­ structure, significantly improving environmental governance and promoting fairer resource allocation for green initiatives. Countries with high female representation in political leadership positions demonstrate greater commitment to the Green Deal targets and tend to integrate climate concerns more effectively into their budgets. Evidence strongly indicates that empowering women serves as a key transmission mechanism, directing financial resources and policy attention toward comprehensive climate action. This action, in addition to protecting economies, significantly reduces long­term climate­related expenditures and ensures a fair transition for all participating nations. Therefore, our research provides a strong justification for the implementation of increased measures to support women’s leadership at all levels of EU governance.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Climate Change
• Political Empowerment
• EU

Kaynakça

1. Adeola, O., Evans, O. & Ngare, I. (2024). Explaining Gendered Vulnerability to Climate Change: The Contextual Conditions In: Gender Equality, Climate Action, and Technological Innovation for Sustainable Development in Africa. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40124-4_3 google scholar 
2. Alonso-Epelde, E., García-Muros, X. & González-Eguino, M. (2024). Climate action from a gender perspective: A systematic review of the impact of climate policies on inequality, Energy Research & Social Science, 112, 103511. DOI: 10.1016/j.erss.2024.103511 google scholar 
3. Ampaire, E.L., Acosta, M., Huyer, S. et al. (2020). Gender in climate change, agriculture, and natural resource policies: insights from East Africa. Climatic Change 158, 43–60 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02447-0google scholar 
4. Anjum, G. & Aziz, M. (2025). Climate change and gendered vulnerability: A systematic review of women’s health. Women’s Health. 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/17455057251323645 google scholar 
5. Asongu, S., Omang, M.O., & Guttemberg, K. T. J. (2022). Women's political empowerment and vulnerability to climate change: Evidence from 169 countries, AGDI Working Paper, No. WP/22/080, African Governance and Development Institute (AGDI), Yaoundé google scholar 
6. Asri, V., Hatlebakk, M. Villanger, E. (2024). How can women benefit from private sector development? Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI Report R 2024:03) google scholar 
7. Bauer, S., Milani, T. M., von Brömssen, K., & Spehar, A. (2023). Gender equality in the name of the state: state feminism or homonationalism in civic orientation for newly arrived migrants in Sweden? Critical Discourse Studies, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2023.2228933 google scholar 
8. Bogliacino F, Mantilla C. & Niño, D. (2023). Economic incentives and political inequality in the management of environmental public goods. J. Behav. Exp. Econ. 2006;104:1006. google scholar 

9. Brule, R. (2023). Climate shocks and gendered political transformation: how crises alter women’s political representation, Politics & Gender19(3), 928-934. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X22000393 google scholar 
10. Cabezas, M. (2022). Silencing feminism? Gender and the rise of the nationalist far right in Spain. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 47(2), 319–345. doi:10.1086/716858 google scholar 
11. Cevik, S. & Jalles, J.T. (2023). For whom the bell tolls: climate change and income inequality, Energy Policy, 174. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113475 google scholar 
12. Cornwall, A. & Edwards, J. (2010). Introduction: negotiating empowerment, Bulletin-Institute of Development Studies 41(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2010.00117.x google scholar 
13. Demetriades, J. Esplen, E. (2008). The gender dimensions of poverty and climate change adaptation, Bulletin-Institute of Development Studies 39(4), 24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2008.tb00473.x google scholar 
14. Desai, B. H., & Mandal, M. (2021). Role of climate change in exacerbating sexual and gender-based violence against women: A new challenge for international law. Environ Policy and Law, 51(3), 137–157. google scholar 
15. Desai, Z. & Zhang, Y. (2021). Climate Change and Women's Health: A Scoping Review, GeoHealth, 5(9). https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000386google scholar 
16. Doepke, M. Tertilt, M. (2009). Women's liberation: what’s in it for men? Quarterly Journal of Economics 124(4), 1541-1591. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1541 google scholar 
17. Dong, K., Zhao, C., & Dong, X. (2024). From Hell to Heaven: How Climate Risks Hurt the Poor and Climate Finance Heals Them, Bulletin of Monetary Economics and Banking: Vol. 27: No. 4, Article 2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.59091/2460-9196.2414 google scholar 
18. Duflo, E. (2012). Women's empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051-1079. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051 google scholar 
19. EIGE. (2023a). The gender equality index. Country profile of Spain. European Institute for Gender Equality. google scholar 
20. [https://eige.europa.eu/modules/custom/eige_gei/app/content/downloads/factsheets/ES_2023_factsheet.pdf(open](https://eige.europa.eu/modules/custom/eige_gei/app/content/downloads/factsheets/ES_2023_factsheet.pdf(open) in a new window) google scholar 
21. EIGE. (2023b). The gender equality index. Country profile of Sweden European Institute for Gender Equality. google scholar 
22. [https://eige.europa.eu/modules/custom/eige_gei/app/content/downloads/factsheets/SE_2023_factsheet.pdf(open](https://eige.europa.eu/modules/custom/eige_gei/app/content/downloads/factsheets/SE_2023_factsheet.pdf(open) in a new window) google scholar 
23. European Commission (2021). Supporting climate action through the EU budget. https://equineteurope.org google scholar 
24. Gaweł, A. & Toikko, T. (2024). Female immigrant entrepreneurship – predicted by women’s empowerment in the host country. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 44 (5-6), 586–606. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-12-2023-0334 google scholar 
25. Gimenez-Jimenez, D., Calabrò, A. & Urbano, D. (2020). The neglected role of formal and informal institutions in women’s entrepreneurship: a multi-level analysis. J Int Entrep 18:196–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-020-00270-8 google scholar 
26. Gherghina, S. & Nemčok, M. (2023). Political Parties, State Resources, and Electoral Clientelism In: Gherghina, S., Nemčok, M. (eds) Political Parties and Electoral Clientelism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37295-7_1 google scholar 
27. Golla, A. M., Malhotra, A., Nanda, P., Mehra, R., Kes, A., Jacobs, K. and Namy, S. (2011). Understanding and measuring women’s economic empowerment. International Center for Research on Women google scholar 
28. Grecequet, M., Dewaard, J., Hellmann, J.J., Abel, G.J. (2017). Climate vulnerability and human migration in a global perspective, Sustainability 9(5), 72. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9050720 google scholar 
29. Grier, R., Grier, K. & Muhoza, F. (2025). The effect of increased women's legislative representation on women's well-being, European Journal of Political Economy 89, 102735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2025.102735google scholar 
30. Habib, N., Alauddin, M. & Cramb, R. (2022). What defines livelihood vulnerability to climate change in rain-fed, rural regions? A qualitative study of men’s and women’s vulnerability to climate change in Pakistan’s Punjab. Powerful Social Sciences, 8(1), 2054152. doi:10.1080/23311886.2022.2054152 google scholar 
31. IPCC (2023). Summary for Policymakers, Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds Core Writing Team, Lee H., Romero J., IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland: 1-34.google scholar 
32. Jámbor, A. & Zanócz, A. (2023). The diversity of environmental, social, and governance aspects in sustainability: A systematic literature review. Sustainability 15(18), 13958. google scholar 
33. Kilolo, J.M., Bah, M.M., & Mastaki, J.L. (2023). Does women’s empowerment foster export diversification? Evidence from a sample of developing countries, The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 32(8), 1215-1248. google scholar 
34. Kim, W. (2021). The Effects of Climate Change on Income Inequality: Evidence from APEC Member Economies. KIEP Research Paper. APEC Study Series, 21-02, 1-57. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3975969 google scholar 
35. Koengkan, M., Fuinhas, J. A., Auza, A., Castilho, D. and Kaymaz, V. (2024). Environmental Governance and Gender Inclusivity: Analyzing the Interplay of PM2.5 and Women’s Representation in Political Leadership in the European Union. Sustainability, 16(6), 2492. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062492 google scholar 
36. Lodi, C., Sacchi, A. & Vidoli, F. (2025). Gender politics, environmental behaviors, and local territories: evidence from Italian municipalities. Ann Reg Sci 74, 52. doi:10.1007/s00168-025-01377-3 google scholar 
37. MacGregor, S. (2010). Gender and climate change: from impacts to discourses. J. Indian Ocean Region 6, 223–238. doi:10.1080/19480881.2010.536669 google scholar 
38. Ngah Obama, F. X. (2025). Gender inequality, women’s human capital and female suicide in selected MENA countries SSM-population health, 30, 101819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2025.101819 google scholar 
39. Nkoa, B.E.O., Beyene, E.B.O., Simb, J.F.N.N., & Eloundou, G.N. (2023). Does social media improve women's political empowerment in Africa? Telecommunications Policy 47(9). doi:10.1016/j.telpol.2023.102624 google scholar 
40. Oloko, A., Dahmouni, I., Le Billon, P. et al. (2025). Gender dynamics, climate change threats and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing. Discov Sustain 6, 494. doi:10.1007/s43621-025-01227-4 google scholar 
41. Ongo Nkoa, B. E., Beyene, O.B., Simb, N.N., Flore, J. & Ngnouwal Eloundou, G. (2023). Does social media improve women's political empowerment in Africa? Telecommunications Policy, 47(9), pp. 57-76. google scholar 
42. Patel, S.K., Agrawal, G., Mathew, B., Patel, S., Mohanty, B., & Singh, A. (2020). Climate change and women in South Asia: a review and future policy implications, World Journal of Science Technology and Sustainable Development 17(2), 145-166. https://doi.org/10.1108/WJSTSD-10-2018-0059google scholar 
43. Rainard, M., Smith, C.J. & Pachauri, S. (2023). Gender equality and climate change mitigation: Are women a secret weapon? Front. Clim. 5:946712. doi:10.3389/fclim.2023.946712 google scholar 
44. Reynolds, A. (1999). Women in the legislatures and executives of the world -knocking at the highest glass ceiling, World Politics 51(4), 547. doi:10.1017/S0043887100009254 google scholar 
45. Rios, A. M. F. M., Crespo, K. C., Martini, M., Telles, L. E. D. B., & Magalhães, P. V. S. (2023). Gender-related and non-gender-related female homicide in Porto Alegre, Brazil, from 2010 to 2016. PLoS ONE 18(3),e0281924. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281924 google scholar 
46. Sältenberg, H., Díaz Fernández, S., & Caravantes, P. (2024). Two Gender–Equal Nations? Anti-Gender Re-Configurations of National Belonging in Sweden and Spain. NORA- Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research, 33(1), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/08038740.2024.2370309google scholar 
47. Saurugger, S. (2022). What do the negotiations about the Multiannual Financial Framework 2021-2027 mean for theories of European integration? Reflections from an actor-centered constructivist perspective. In S. Münch & H. Heinelt (Eds.), EU Policymaking at a Crossroads, Chapter 11, pp. 251-271, Edward Elgar Publishing. google scholar 
48. Sbiroli, E., Geynisman-Tan, J., Sood, N., Maines, B.A., Junn, J.H. and Sorensen, C. (2022). Climate change and women's health in the United States: impacts and opportunities, The Journal of Climate Change and Health, 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joclim.2022.100169 google scholar 
49. SenGupta, S. & Atal, A. (2024). Income inequality in the face of climate change: an empirical investigation on unequal nations, vulnerable regions and India. SN Bus Econ 4, 87. doi:10.1007/s43546-024-00685-8 google scholar 
50. Sorensen, C., Murray, V., Lemery, J., & Balbus, J. (2018a). Climate change and women's health: Impacts and policy directions. PLoS Med, 15(7), e1002603. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002603 google scholar 
51. Sorensen, C., Saunik, S., Sehgal, M., Tewary, A., Govindan, M., Lemery, J. and Balbus, J. (2018b). Climate change and women's health: impacts and opportunities in India, Geohealth 2(10), 283-297. https://doi.org/%2010.1029/2018GH000163 google scholar 
52. Studlar, M.D.T. (1996). The contagion of women candidates in single-member district and proportional representation electoral systems: Canada and Norway, Journal of Politics, 58(3), 707-733. doi:10.2307/2960439google scholar 
53. Tanjeela, M. and Rutherford, S. (2018). The influence of gender relations on women’s involvement and experience in climate change adaptation programs in Bangladesh. SAGE Open, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018812620 google scholar 
54. Tostado, L. & Wiese, K. (2021). European Green Deal: Integrating gender and intersectional approach into green budgeting and taxation. Heinrich Böll Stiftung. Brussels: EU. Available at: https://eu.boell.org/en/2021/07/16/green-gender-budgeting-taxationgoogle scholar 
55. Wang, C., Wan, G., Luo, Z. and Zhang, X. (2017). Aging and Inequality: The Perspective of Labor Income Share. https://www.adb.org/publications/aging-and-inequality-perspective-labor-income-sharegoogle scholar 
56. Wen, J., Zhang, S., Chang, C.-P., Anugrah, D. F., & Affandi, Y. (2023). Does climate vulnerability promote green investment under energy supply restriction? Energy Economics, 124, 106790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2023.106790 google scholar 
57. Wildowicz-Szumarska, A. (2022). Is the Redistributive Policy of the EU Welfare State Effective in Tackling Income Inequality? A Panel Data Analysis. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 17(1), 239-256. doi:10.24136/eq.2022.001 google scholar 
58. Yin, H.T., Chang, C.P., Anugrah, D.F., Gunad, I. (2023). Gender equality and central bank independence, Economic Analysis and Policy 78,661-672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2023.04.006 google scholar 
59. Zhao, X.X., Wen, J., Zou, X., Wang, Q.J. and Chang, C.P. (2023). Strategies for the sustainable development of China in the postepidemic era, Sustainable Development 31(1), 426-438. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2401google scholar 
60. Zuazua Ruiz, A., Martín Martín, J. M., & Prados-Castillo, J. F. (2023). The European Union facing climate change: A window of opportunity for technological development and entrepreneurship. Sustainable Technology and Entrepreneurship, 2(2), 100035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stae.2022.100035 google scholar