Dağıtım Şebekesinin Su Kalitesine Etkisi ve Farklı Ülkelerde Şebeke Suyunun İçilebilirliğinin Artırılma Faaliyetleri

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 26 Sayı: 2, 67 - 86, 30.11.2025

Elif Zeynep Deneri , Malhun Fakıoğlu , Mehmet Melih Koşucu

Öz

Dağıtım şebekelerindeki su kalitesini etkileyen faktörlerin ve şebeke sularının içilebilirliğinin incelendiği bu çalışmada, dağıtım şebekelerinde tat ve kokuya neden olan etkenler arasında olan dezenfektanlar, biyolojik aktiviteler, dezenfeksiyon yan ürünleri ve dağıtım şebekesi malzemelerinden kaynaklanan tat ve kokudan bahsedilmiştir. Bu kapsamda, Uzakdoğu, Avrupa ve Amerika’daki bazı ülkelerde gerçekleştirilen dezenfeksiyon uygulamalarına değinilmiş, ardından Türkiye’deki dezenfeksiyon uygulamaları açıklanmıştır. Çalışmada, su kalitesi iyileştirme teknikleri su kalitesi modelleme, bakiye dezenfektan tespiti ve ara klorlama başlıkları ile özetlenmiştir. Çalışmanın sonuç ve öneriler bölümünde, Türkiye’de İnsani Tüketim Amaçlı Sular Hakkında Yönetmelik’te belirtilen standartlarla yüksek kalitede arıtılmış suyun dağıtım şebekeleri vasıtasıyla tüketicilere düzenli olarak sunulduğuna, fakat tüketicilerin ekseriyetinin içme suyu kullanımı amacıyla şebeke suyundan ziyade damacana ve plastik şişe sularını tercih ettiğine vurgu yapılmıştır. Ayrıca, Türkiye’deki Sıfır Atık Hedefi kapsamında plastik şişe kullanımının azaltılarak bu şişelerin çevreye verdiği zararları minimize etmek için sebillerin yaygınlaştırılması hem ekonomik hem de ekolojik açıdan önemli bir çözüm olarak sunulmuştur. Bununla birlikte, su kalitesinin sürekli izlenmesi, bakiye dezenfektan konsantrasyonlarının takibi ve ara klorlama yöntemlerinin uygulanması, su dağıtım şebekelerinde yaşanabilecek kalite bozulmalarının önüne geçilebilmesi adına önemli olmakla birlikte hidrolik modelleme araçlarının kullanımı, su kalitesinin zaman ve mekâna bağlı değişimini analiz edilebilmesi için faydalı bir yöntem olarak öne çıkmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

su dağıtım şebekesi , su kalitesi , suyun içilebilirliği

Teşekkür

Bu derleme çalışmasının yapılması için bize fikir veren ve bizi çalışmaya teşvik eden Prof. Dr. İzzet Öztürk hocamıza teşekkür ederiz.

Kaynakça

• Abbasi, N. A., Shahid, S.U., Majid, M., Tahir, A. (2022). Ecotoxicological risk assessment of environmental micropollutants, Environmental Micropollutants, 331- 337.
• Abhijith, G. R., & Ostfeld, A. (2021). Modeling the Formation and Propagation of 2,4,6-trichloroanisole, a Dominant Taste and Odor Compound, in Water Distribution Systems. Water, Vol. 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050638
• Abokifa, A. A., Yang, Y. J., Lo, C. S., & Biswas, P. (2016). Investigating the role of biofilms in trihalomethane formation in water distribution systems with a multicomponent model. Water research, 104, 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.08.006
• American Water Works Association (AWWA) (2002). Distribution Generated Taste and Odor Phenomena”. Colorado, USA, AWWA Research Foundation.
• Ataoui, R., Ermini, R., (2017). Risk assessment of water distribution service. Procedia Engineering.186, 514–521.
• Aydın, R. & Şirin, S. (2020). A survey on drinking water preferences and point of use water treatment systems in Adana, Turkey, Desalination and Water Treatment, 125, 329-333.
• Bereskie, T.A. (2017). Drinking Water Management and Governance in Small Drinking Water Systems: Integrating Continuous Performance Improvement and Risk-Based Benchmarking. Doctoral dissertation. University of British Columbia.
• Bhutiani, R., Kulkarni, D.B., Khanna, D.R., Gautam, A. (2016). Water quality, pollution source apportionment and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater of an industrial area in North India. Exposure Health 8, 3–18.
• British Colombia (1989). Chlorine Water Quality Guidelines (Reformatted Guideline from 1989), https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/air-land-water/water/waterquality/water-quality-guidelines/approved-wqgs/bc_env_chlorine_waterqualityguideline_technical.pdf adresinden alınmıştır. Erişim Tarihi: 25.02.2025
• Brungs, W. A. (1976). Effects of Wastewater and Cooling Water Chlorination on Aquatic Life. Report No. EPA-600/3-76-098. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota. 45 pp.
• CCME (2004). From Source to Tap: Guidance on the Multi-Barrier Approach to Safe Drinking Water, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment.
• Cho, Y.M. (2017). Tap Water Quality Inspection System by the Multiple Checks, https://www.seoulsolution.kr/en/content/6379#:~:text=In%20order%20to%20reduce%20the,guidelines%20on%20clean%2Dtasting%20water. adresinden alınmıştır. Erişim Tarihi: 25.02.2025
• Choi, I.-C., Shin, H.-J., Nguyen, T., & Tenhunen, J. (2017). Water policy reforms in South Korea: A historical review and ongoing challenges for sustainable water governance and management. Water, 9(717). https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090717
• City of Istanbul. (2024). Istanbul Population 2024 [Current and Historic]: https://cityofistanbul.net/ adresinden alınmıştır.
• Clark, R., Grayman, W. M., & Males, R. M. (1988). Contaminant Propagation in Distribution Systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 114(4), 929–943.
• Clark, R. M., & Grayman, W. M. (1998). Modeling Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. American Water Works Association.
• Çakmakçı, M., Özkaya, B., Yetilmezsoy, K., & Demir, S. (2013). Su Arıtma Tesislerinin Tasarım ve İşletme Esasları, T.C. Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı, Su Yönetimi Genel Müdürlüğü
• Douterelo I, Husband S, Loza V, Boxall J. (2016). Dynamics of Biofilm Regrowth in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. Appl Environ Microbiol82: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00109-16
• Fakıoğlu, M., Karpuzcu, M. E., & Öztürk, İ. (2018). İçme sularında alg kaynaklı tat ve koku sorununun değerlendirilmesi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 24(6), 1141-1156.
• Faust S.D.A, Osman M. (1998). Chemistry of Water Treatment. New York, USA, Lewis Publishers.
• Government of Ontario. (2024). Procedure for disinfection of drinking water in Ontario. https://www.ontario.ca/page/procedure-disinfection-drinking-water-ontario adresinden alındı. Erişim Tarihi: 19.10.2024.
• Grayman, W. M., Rossman, L. A., & Geldreich, E. E. (2000). 9. Water Quality. In L. Mays (Ed.), Water Distribution Systems Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
• Gschwandtner, A., Jang, C., & McManus, R. (2020). Improving drinking water quality in South Korea: A choice experiment with hypothetical bias treatments. Water, 12(9), 2481.
• Güner, A. E. (2020). İstanbul İlinde 2017 Yılı İçme ve Kullanma Sularının Değerlendirilmesi; İstanbul Halk Sağlığı Müdürlüğü Çalışmaları. Doktora Tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
• Hartmann, J., van Driezum, I., Ohana, D., Lynch, G., Berendsen, B., Wuijts, S., van der Hoek, J.P., de Roda Husman, A.M. (2020). The effective design of sampling campaigns for emerging chemical and microbial contaminants in drinking water and its resources based on literature mining. Sci. Total Environ. 742, 140546.
• Hashemi, S., Park, J., Yang, M., Kim, J., Oh, Y., Pyo, H., & Yang, H. (2022). Long-term monitoring and risk assessment of N-nitrosamines in the finished water of drinking water treatment plants in South Korea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 3930–3943.
• Ikhlaq, A., Kazmi, M., Hayder, S., Mian, H.R., Rustam, M., Sulheri, A.W., Saeed, A. (2014). Evaluation of drinking water quality parameters in the areas of East-Lahore Pakistan: a case study. J. Fac. Eng. Technol. 21, 1–21.
• İnsani Tüketim Amaçlı Sular Hakkında Yönetmelik, Resmi Gazete (17.02.2005). 25730
• İSKİ (2024). 2023 Faaliyet Raporu, https://iski.istanbul/kurumsal/stratejik-yonetim/faaliyet-raporlari/ adresinden alınmıştır. Erişim Tarihi: 13.12.2024
• Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). (2024). Water supply system: From water sources to distribution. Retrieved November 18, 2024, from https://www.jica.go.jp/Resource/english/our_work/thematic_issues/water/c8h0vm0000fgpuk7-att/materials_01_03.pdf
• Japan Water Works Association (JWWA). (2023). Water supply in Japan 2023. Retrieved November 18, 2024, from http://www.jwwa.or.jp/jigyou/kaigai_file/2023WaterSupplyInJapan.pdf
• Jia, J., Rui, M., Cheng, X., Liang, H. (2023). Application of ultrafiltration technology in drinking water industry of China: A comprehensive assessment of hybrid membrane processes, AQUA - Water Infrastructure, Ecosystems and Society 72 (12): 2408–2421.
• Karadirek, İ. E. (2014). İçme Suyu Dağıtım Şebekelerinde Serbest Bakiye Klor Konsantrasyonlarının Deterministik ve Veriye Dayalı Modelleme Teknikleri Kullanarak Yönetimi.
• Karadirek, I. E., Kara, S., Muhammetoglu, A., Muhammetoglu, H., & Soyupak, S. (2016). Management of chlorine dosing rates in urban water distribution networks using online continuous monitoring and modeling. Urban Water Journal, 13(4), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2014.992916
• Karakaş Ulusoy, C. (2024). The Importance of Being Returned from Bottled Water to TapWater in Turkey in Terms of Sustainable Development, An Agenda for Sustainable Development Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65909-6_16
• Kitada, S. & Saito, H. (2020). Proper Management of Residual Chlorine Concentration in Tap Water for Reduce Chlorine Odor, https://www.waterworks.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/files/items/30209/File/1-8.pdf adresinden alındı. Erişim Tarihi: 18.10.2024.
• Kleiner, Y. (1998). Water Distribution Network Rehabilitation: Selection and Scheduling of Pipe Rehabilitation Alternatives. Doctoral dissertation. University of Toronto.
• Koç, S. (2014). Influence of System Parameters on The Disinfection Capability of Water Distribution Networks, Master Thesis, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University.
• Koşucu, M. M., Albay, E., & Demirel, M. C. (2022). Extending EPANET Hydraulic Solver Capacity with Rigid Water Column Global Gradient Algorithm. Journal of Hydro-Environment Research, 42, 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jher.2022.04.002
• Koşucu, M. M., & Demirel, M. C. (2022). Smart pressure management extension for EPANET: source code enhancement with a dynamic pressure reducing valve model. Journal of Hydroinformatics, 24(3), 642–658. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2022.172
• Koşucu, M. M., & Demirel, M. C. (2024). Cost Efficiency Assessment of Four Pressure Management Methods in Water Distribution Systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 150(3). https://doi.org/10.1061/jwrmd5.wreng-5984
• Kowalska, B., Kowalski, D., & Musz-Pomorska, A. (2007). Chlorine decay and disinfection by-products in water distribution systems. Environmental Engineering - Proceedings of the 2nd National Congress of Environmental Engineering, 191–199.
• Lada, S. (2023). Nine years later: Water crisis settlement claims delayed, residents say process is unfair. Flint Beat. Retrieved April 30, 2024.
• Lahlou, Z. M. (2002). Water quality in distribution systems. A National Drinking Water Clearinghouse Fact Sheet. University of West Virginia, USA.
• Lee, S., & Choi, G.-W. (2012). Governance in a river restoration project in South Korea: The case of Incheon. Water Resources Management, 26, 1165–1182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9952-5
• Liu, S., Gunawan, C., Barraud, N., Rice, S. A., Harry, E. J., & Amal, R. (2016). Understanding, monitoring, and controlling biofilm growth in drinking water distribution systems. Environmental science & technology, 50(17), 8954-8976.
• Mays, L. W. (2000). Water distribution systems handbook. McGraw-Hill.
• Mercer, T., Christensen, J. (2011). Measuring Performance of Water Systems in California. Stanford University, Woods Institute for the Environment. The Bill Lane Center for the American West https://waterinthewest.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Working_Paper_on_Perfomance_Measurement_1.pdf.
• Metro Vancouver (t.y.). Water Treatment and Facilities, https://metrovancouver.org/services/water/water-treatment-facilities#:~:text=Metro%20Vancouver%20treats%20your%20drinking,it%20travels%20throughout%20the%20region. adresinden alındı. Erişim Tarihi: 26.02.2025
• Mian, H.R., Saleem, S., Hu, G., Sadiq, R. (2019). Water distribution systems: hydraulics and quality modeling, Water Treatment and Supply, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0185.
• Mian, H. R., Hu, G., Hewage, K., Rodriguez, M.J., Sadiq, R. (2021) Drinking water quality assessment in distribution networks: A water footprint approach, Science of the Total Environment, 775, 145844.
• Nadiroğlu, C. (2014). Qualitative Evaluations about the Disinfection Capabilities of A Water Distribution Network: A Model Study, Master Thesis, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University.
• National Research Council (2006). Drinking Water Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks. National Academies Press, Danvers
• Nieminen, T. (2020). Efficacy requirements for drinking water disinfectants - survey and proposal Requirements according to Biocidal Products Regulation in relation to disinfection practices in the Nordic countries, Nourdic Council of Ministers.
• Omur-Ozbek, P (2012). Global taste and odor survey of water utilities: final report to the American Water Works Association from the Taste and Odor Committee. AWWA, Denver.
• Patel, A. I., Hecht, C. E., Cradock, A., Edwards, M. A., & Ritchie, L. D. (2020). Drinking water in the United States: Implications of water safety, access, and consumption. Annual Review of Nutrition, 40, 345-373.
• Petrie, B., Barden, R., & Kasprzyk-Hordern, B. (2015). A review on emerging contaminants in wastewaters and the environment: Current knowledge, understudied areas and recommendations for future monitoring. Water Research, 72, 3–27.
• Rossman, L. A. (1994). EPANET Users Manual. USEPA.
• Rossman, L. A. (2000). EPANET 2 Users Manual. USEPA.
• Rossman, L. A. (2010). An Overview of EPANET Version 3.0. Water Distribution System Analysis 2010.
• Rossman, L. A., Clark, R., & Grayman, W. (1994). Modeling Chlorine Residuals in Drinking-Water Distribution Systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering ASCE, 120(4).
• Saleem, S., Mian, H.R., Hu, G. (2019). Water distribution system. In: Maurice, P. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Water https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0194.
• Sadiq, R., Kleiner, Y., Rajani, B., (2007). Water quality failures in distribution networks—risk analysis using fuzzy logic and evidential reasoning. Risk Anal. Int. J. 27 (5), 1381–1394.
• San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (2021). Taste and Odor in Drinking Water. San Francisco Water Power Sewer.
• Selbes, M., Beita-Sandí, W., Kim, D., & Karanfil, T. (2018). The role of chloramine species in NDMA formation. Water Research, 140, 100–109. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.04.033
• Selek, B. (2020). Assessment of Surface Drinking Water Resources of Turkey in Terms of Water Quality Standards, Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology, (42)5, 415–426.
• Shi, X. (2020). The safety of drinking water in China: Current status and future prospects. China CDC Weekly, 210–215.
• Smeets, P.W.M.H., Medema, G.J., van Dijk, J.C. (2009). The Dutch secret: how to provide safe drinking water without chlorine in the Netherlands, Drink. Water Eng. Sci., 2, 1–14.
• Tamminen, S., Ramos, H., & Covas, D. (2008). Water Supply System Performance for Different Pipe Materials Part I: Water Quality Analysis. Water Resources Management, 22(11), 1579–1607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-008-9244-x
• Tarkan, A. S. (2010). Effects of Streams on Drinkable Water Reservoir: An Assessment of Water Quality, Physical Habitat and Some Biologıcal Features of The Streams, Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 4(1): 8-19
• Tuluk, B. ve Orhan, F. (2017). Comparison of Tap Water With Bottled Natural Spring Water in Terms of Some Quality Parameters in Erzurum, Research Journal of Agricultural Sciences Tarım Bilimleri Araştırma Dergisi, E-ISSN: 1308-027X, 10(2): 27-32.
• Tomboulian, P., Schweitzer, L., Mullin, K., Wilson, J., & Khiari, D. (2004). Materials used in drinking water distribution systems: contribution to taste-and-odor. Water Science and Technology, 49(9), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2004.0575
• Um, M.-J.; Kwak, S.-J.; Kim, T.-Y. (2002). Estimating Willingness to Pay for Improved Drinking Water Quality Using Averting Behavior Method with Perception Measure. Environ. Resour. Econ, 21, 285–300.
• URL-1: https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/badger-meter/spanish-water-utility-tackles-disinfection-measurement-and-control-solutions 1 Erişim Tarihi: 15.11.2024
• URL-2: https://basq.livelarq.com/wellness/is-stockholm-sweden-tap-water-actually-safe-to-drink/ Erişim Tarihi: 16.11.2024
• Uyak, V., & Toröz, I. (2007). Investigation of bromide ion effects on disinfection by-products formation and speciation in an Istanbul water supply. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 149, 445-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.04.017
• Uyak, V., Ozdemir, K., & Toroz, I. (2008). Seasonal variations of disinfection by-product precursors profile and their removal through surface water treatment plants. Science of the Total Environment, 390, 417-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.09.046
• van der Kooij, D., van Lieverloo, J. H. M., Gale, P., and Stanfield, G. (2003). Distributing drinking water with a low or zero disinfectant residual, Operational and biological aspect, UKWIR (Ed.).
• van der Kooij, D., van Lieverloo, J. H. M., Schellart, J., and Hiemstra, P. (1999). Maintaining quality without a disinfectant residual, J. Am. Water Works Ass., 91(1), 55–64.
• van der Kooij, D., Hijnen, W. A. M., Drost, Y. C., Willemsen- Zwaagstra, J., Nobel, P. J., and Schellart, J. A. (1995). Multiple barriers against micro-organisms in water treatment and distribution in the Netherlands, Water Supply, 13(2), 13–23.
• Vasconcelos, J. J., Rossman, L. A., Grayman, W. M., Boulos, P. F., & Clark, R. M. (1997). Kinetics of chlorine decay. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 89(7), 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1997.tb08259.x
• Villanueva, C. M., Garfí, M., Milà, C., Olmos, S., Ferrer, I., & Tonne, C. (2021). Health and environmental impacts of drinking water choices in Barcelona, Spain: A modelling study. Science of the Total Environment, 795, 148884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148884
• Walski, T. M., Chase, D. V, Savic, D. A., Beckwith, S., Cattran, S., Hammond, R., Laptos, K., Lowry, S. G., Mankowski, R. F., Plante, S., Przybyla, J., & Schmitz, B. (2007). Advanced Water Distribution Modeling And Management (A. Strafaci, C. Totz, & K. Dietrich, Eds.; First Edit). Bentley Institute Press.
• Wang, G., Shen, J., Wei, S., Cai, D., Liu, J. (2022). Identification of Heavy Metals and Organic Micropollutants in Drinking Water Sources in Typical Villages and Towns in Northeast China, Molecules, 27, 8033.
• World Health Organization (WHO) (2022). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First and Second Addenda.
• Wood, D. J. (1980). Slurry flows in pipe networks. Journal of the Hydraulics Division: ASCE, 106(1), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1061/jyceaj.0005359
• Wu, J., Cao, M., Tong, D., Finkelstein, Z., & Hoek, E. M. V. (2021). A critical review of point-of-use drinking water treatment in the United States. npj Clean Water, 4(40).
• Yong, Z. Y., Kim, K. Y., & Oh, J. E. (2021). The occurrence and distributions of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in groundwater after a PFAS leakage incident in 2018. Environmental Pollution, 268, 115395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115395
• Zhou, Q., Bian, Z., Yang, D., & Fu, L. (2023). Stability of drinking water distribution systems and control of disinfection by-products. Toxics, 11(5).