Comparison of The Yield and Toxicological Properties of Maize Grown as The Main Crop ın Batman and as The Second Crop in Mardin in Türkiye

Year 2025, Volume: 9 Issue: 4, 1213 - 1223, 26.12.2025

Fatih Yücesoy , Ahmet Tekeli , Füsun Gülser

https://doi.org/10.31015/2025.4.23

Abstract

This study was conducted to determine the yield parameters, toxicological status, microbial contamination levels and color characteristics of different maize (Zea mays L.) varieties grown in two different provinces in Türkiye, as the main crop in Batman province and as the second crop in Mardin province. In the samples evaluated in the research, moisture content was found to be between 9.2–14.1%, thousand grain weight was found to be between 291.9–377.6 g, hectoliter weight was found to be between 77.0–79.1 kg/hl and yield per decare was found to be between 1107–1385.9 kg/da. In the color analyses; brightness (L*) ranged from 56.3–61.7, red-green axis (a*) 8.7–1.20, yellow-blue axis (b*) 36.0–42.6. In toxicological analyzes, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) levels were determined as 1.69–21.80 ppb, aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) levels as 0.74–0.80 ppb and total aflatoxin content as 1.69–22.60 ppb. It was observed that the determined aflatoxin levels were below the limits specified in the legislation. Yeast and mold growth was detected in 17 (35.4%) of the total 48 maize samples examined. The isolated microorganisms were Penicillium spp. at 31.2%, followed by Alternaria spp. at 14.6%, Aspergillus spp. at 12.5%, and yeast species at 4.16%.Soil analyses indicated that the main crop maize fields were clayey, while second-crop maize fields were clay-loam. The overall findings of the study indicated that the varieties grown as the main crops (especially P2088) were superior in terms of yield and quality parameters. These results demonstrate that cultivation time, soil properties, and genetic diversity have significant effects on maize quality and toxicological safety. Growing maize as the second crop in Mardin province should be considered as an advantage.

Keywords

Aflatoxin , Grain Maize , Main Crop , Second Crop , Yield , Quality , Soil Properties

Supporting Institution

This study was supported by YYU Scientific Research Projects Directorate as project number FYL-2017-6170.

Project Number

FYL-2017-6170

Thanks

We would like to thank Prof Dr Stephen Macko from the University of Virginia, United States, for editing the English version of this article. We would like to thank the Scientific Research Projects Unit at Van Yüzüncü Yıl University for their support.

References

• Abbasi F, Liu J, Zhang H, Shen X, Luo X (2018) Effects of feeding corn naturally contaminated with aflatoxin on growth performance, apparent ileal digestibility, serum hormones levels and gene expression of Na+, K+-ATPase in ducklings. Asian Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 31(1): 91.
• Ali Q, Ashraf M, Anwar F (2010) Seed composition and seed oil antioxidant activity of maize under water stress. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 87: 1179-1187.
• Anonymous (2017) Tarımsal değerleri ölçme denemeleri teknik talimatı. T.C. Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı. https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/BUGEM/TTSM/Belgeler/Tescil/Teknik%20Talimatlar/S%C4%B1cak%20%C4%B0klim%20Tah%C4%B1llar%C4%B1/m%C4%B1s%C4%B1r.pdf (accessed 05.09.2017).
• AOAC (2002) AOAC 991.31 Official Method Aflatoxins in corn, raw peanuts and peanut butter immunoaffinity column (Aflatest) method first action 1991, finally action 1994 AOAC-IUPAC method.
• Bek Y, Efe E (1988) Araştırma ve deneme metotları. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitabı, Adana.
• Bouyoucous G J (1951) A recalibration of hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils. Agronomy Journal 43: 434-438.
• Cassidy ES, West P C, Gerber J S, Foley J A (2013) Redefining agricultural yields: From tonnes to people nourished per hectare. Environmental Research Lettters 8: 034015.
• Chauhan NM, Washe AP, Minota T (2016) Fungal infection and aflatoxin contamination in maize collected from Gedeo Zone, Ethiopia. Springer Plus 5: pp 1-8.
• Coşkun Y, Coşkun A, Koşar İ (2013) Bazı at dişi mısır çeşitlerinin yarı kurak iklim koşullarında verim performansları. KOP Bölgesel Kalkınma Sempozyumu I, Konya, pp 182-185.
• Çetin A (2009) Mısırda verim ve verim unsurları yönüyle genotip X çevre interaksiyonunun belirlenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tarla Bitkileri Anabilim Dalı, Konya. Türkiye
• Dagar J C, Ghosh P K, Mohanta S K, Singh J B, Vijay D, Kumar R V (2017) Potentials for fodder production in degraded lands. In: Approaches towards fodder security in India. Studera Press, New Delhi, pp 333-364.
• Deligeorgakis C, Magro C, Skendi A, Gebrehiwot H H, Valdramidis V, Papageorgiou M (2023) Fungal and toxin contaminants in cereal grains and flours: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Foods 29(23): 4328.
• EC (2008) Commission Regulation (EC) No 2006R1881 of 23.07.2008 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs.
• Emam Y (2004) Agronomy cereal crops. University of Shiraz Press, Iran.
• Ergün A, Tuncer Ş D, Çolpan İ, Yalçın S, Yıldız G, Küçükersan K M, Küçükersan S, Şehu A, Saçaklı P (2016) Yemler yem hijyeni ve teknolojisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Ders Kitabı, Genişletilmiş 6. Baskı, Ankara.
• Hışıl Y (1999) Enstrümental gıda analizleri (I). Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi, Bornova-İzmir.
• Jackson ML (1958) Soil chemical analysis. Verlag Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
• Jayaratne W, Abeyratne A, Zoysa HD, Dissanayake D, Bamunuarachchige T, Waisundara V, Chang S (2020) Detection and quantification of aflatoxin B1 in corn and corn-grown soils in the district of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Heliyon 6(10): e05319.
• Jiao S, Zhong Y, Deng Y (2016) Hot air-assisted radio frequency heating effects on wheat and corn seeds: Quality change and fungi inhibition. Journal of Stored Products Research 69: 265-271.
• Kacar B (1994) Toprak analizleri. Nobel Yayın, Ankara.
• Kahraman Ş, Atakul Ş, Kılınç S (2017) Aday hibrit mısır genotiplerinin Diyarbakır ana ürün koşullarında adaptasyonlarının belirlenmesi. Tarla Bitkileri Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsü Dergisi 26(2): 153-160.
• Konak C, Turgut İ, Serter E (1998) Büyük menderes vadisi ikinci ürün koşullarında yetiştirilen melez mısır çeşitlerinin verim ve bazı agronomik özellikleri. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 11(1): 11-20.
• Kushanov F N, Turaev O S, Muhammadiyev O A, Umarov R F, Rakhimova N M, Mamadaliyeva N N (2022) Maize (Zea mays L.) as a model system for plant genetic, genomic, and applied research. In: Abdurakhmonov İ Y (ed) Model Organisms in Plant Genetics. IntechOpen Books. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/81949 (accessed 23.07.2025).
• Kutlu H R, Görgülü M, Çelik L B (2008) Genel hayvan besleme ders notu. Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Zootekni Bölümü Yemler ve Hayvan Besleme Anabilim Dalı, Adana, Türkiye
• Laurie C C, Chasalow S D, LeDeaux J R, McCarroll R, Bush D, Hauge B, Lai C, Clark D, Rocheford T R, Dudley J W (2004) The genetic architecture of response to long-term artificial selection for oil concentration in the maize kernel. Genetics 168: 2141-2155.
• Leroy J L, Wang J S, Jones K (2015) Serum aflatoxin B1-lysine adduct level in adult women from Eastern Province in Kenya depends on household socio-economic status: a cross sectional study. Social science & Medicine 146: 104-110.
• Lindsay W L, Norwell W A (1978) Development of a DTPA soil test for Zn, Fe, Mn and Cd. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 42: 421-428.
• Liu Y, Wu F (2010) Global burden of aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: a risk assessment. Environmental Health Perspectives 118(6): 818-824.
• Liu Z, Zhang G, Zhang Y, Jin Q, Zhao J, Li J (2016) Factors controlling mycotoxin contamination in maize and food in the Hebei province, China. Agronomy Sustainable Development 36(39): 1-10.
• Moreno E C, Garcia G T, Ono M A, Vizoni É, Kawamura O, Hirooka E Y, Ono E Y S (2009) Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in corn samples from the Northern Region of Paraná State, Brazil. Food Chemistry 116(1): 220-226.
• Murdia L K, Wadhwani R, Wadhawan N, Bajpai P, Shekhawat S (2016) Maize utilization in India: An overview. American Journal of Food and Nutrition 4(6): 169-176.
• Nada S, Nikola T, Bozidar U, Ilija D, Andreja R (2022) Prevention and practical strategies to control mycotoxins in the wheat and maize chain. Food Control 136: 108855.
• Olaniyan A B (2015) Maize: Panacea for hunger in Nigeria. African Journal of Plant Science 9(3): 155-174.
• Olsen S R, Cole C V, Watanabe F S, Dean L A (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Cir. 939-941, Washington D. C.
• Öz A, Kapar H (2003) Samsun koşullarında geliştirilen çeşit adayı mısırların verim öğelerinin belirlenmesi ve stabilite analizi. Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi 9(4): 454-459.
• Öz A, Tezel M, Kapar H, Üstün A (2008) Samsun ve Konya şartlarına uygun mısır çeşitlerinin geliştirilmesi üzerine bir araştırma. Ülkesel Tahıl Sempozyumu, 2-5 Haziran 2008, Konya, pp 137-146.
• Pekel A Y, Cakır E O, Polat M, Cakır K, İnan G, Kocabağlı N (2013) Correlations between chemical assays and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy for nutrient components and correlations between nutrients and color scores of distillers dried grains with solubles. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 22(4): 814-824.
• Ramchandran D, Hojilla-Evangelista M P, Moose S P, Rausch K D, Tumbleson M E, Singh V (2016) Maize proximate composition and physical properties correlations to dry-grind ethanol concentrations. Cereal Chemistry 93(4): 414-418.
• Richards L A (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA Agric. Handbook 60. Washington, D. C.
• Sabancı S (2016) Ege bölgesinde yetiştirilen bazı mısır (Zea mays L.) çeşitlerinin verim, kalite ve antioksidan aktivitelerinin belirlenmesi. Master's thesis, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Aydın, Türkiye.
• Sarıkurt B (2005) Diyarbakır sulu koşullarında II. ürün olarak yetiştirilen bazı mısır çeşitlerinde verim ve bazı tarımsal karakterler ile karakterler arası ilişkilerin saptanması. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Harran Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Şanlıurfa.
• Saunders J A, Rosentrater K A (2009) Properties of solvent extracted low-oil corn distillers dried grains with solubles. Biomass and Bioenergy 33(10): 1486-1490.
• SAS (2015) SAS/STAT. Statistical Analysis System for Windows. Release Version 9.4. SAS Institute Incorporation, Cary, NC, USA.
• Shekhar R, Raghavendra V B, Rachitha P (2025) A comprehensive review of mycotoxins, their toxicity and innovative detoxification methods. Toxicology Reports 14: 101952.
• TGK (2009) Türk gıda kodeksi gıda maddelerindeki bulaşanların maksimum limitleri hakkında tebliğ (Tebliğ No: 2008/26). Resmi Gazete, 16 Şubat 2009, Sayı: 27143.
• Thakur S, Kaur A, Singh N, Virdi A S (2015) Successive reduction dry milling of normal and waxy corn: Grain, grit, and flour properties. Journal of Food Science 80(6): C1144-C1155.
• Thomas G W (1982) Exchangeable cations. (2nd Ed.) In: Chemical and Microbiological Properties Agronomy Monograph, 7. ASASSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp 159-165.
• TUİK (2025) Bitkisel üretim istatistikleri, tahıllar. http://www.tuik.gov.tr (accessed 03.07.2025).
• Uluöz M (1965) Buğday unu ve ekmek analiz metotları. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayın No:57. İzmir.
• USDA (2025) World agricultural production. Circular Series WAP 07-25. United States Department of Agriculture. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/production.pdf (accessed 21.07.2025).
• Ülgen N, Yurtsever N (1995) Türkiye gübre ve gübreleme rehberi. Toprak ve Gübre Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları, Genel yayın No: 209, Teknik Yayınlar No: 66, Ankara.
• Walkey A (1947) A critical examination of a rapid method for determining organic carbon in soils: Effect of variations in digestion conditions and inorganic soil constituents. Soil Science 63: pp 251-263.
• Yasak S, Çınar A, Tugay M E (2003) Mısırda (Zea mays L.) ekim zamanının tohum tutma ve diğer bazı özellikler üzerine etkileri. Türkiye 5. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi. 13-17 Ekim, 2003, Diyarbakır, pp 352-357.
• Yorgancilar M, Bilgiçli N (2014) Chemical and nutritional changes in bitter and sweet lupin seeds (Lupinus albus L.) during bulgur production. Journal of Food Science and Technology 51(7): pp 1384-1389.