The Legal and EcoThe legal and economic aspects of use of space resources

Öz

Nowadays, the opening of space research to private companies occupies the agenda of the international public and brings about discussions on this issue. In space research, which was previously an area entirely under the control of states, private companies also operate in service areas such as satellite communication services, satellite launches, remote sensing, satellite photography, TV broadcasting, navigation and weather forecasting. The debate, which is becoming more popular, brings with it a series of discussions such as the use of space resources, space mining, property rights in space, and establishing sovereignty over celestial bodies and their resources. The use of space resources has also been added to the above-mentioned areas of activity of private companies and discussions on this subject. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which is the founding text of the developing legal norms in this field, banned the assertion of sovereignty and establishment of property rights in space and claimed that space is the common heritage of mankind. This discourse, which provided relative stability in international relations during the Cold War, is rapidly becoming obsolete today due to developing technology, increasing demands and the potentials offered by space. In this study, these issues will be discussed and a discussion will be held on the discourse of the common heritage of humanity and the status of space law.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• The Outer Space Treaty
• Common Heritage of Mankind
• Private Property
• Private Enterprises
• Satellites

Uzay kaynaklarının kullanımının hukuki ve ekonomik etkileri

Öz

Uzay araştırmalarının günümüzde özel şirketlere de açılması uluslararası kamuoyunun gündemini her geçen gün daha fazla işgal etmekte ve bu konu ile ilgili tartışmaları da beraberinde getirmektedir. Daha önce tamamıyla devletlerin kontrolündeki bir alan olan uzay araştırmalarında, uydu iletişim hizmetleri, uydu fırlatma, uzaktan algılama, uydu fotoğrafçılığı, TV yayıncılığı, navigasyon ve hava durumu tahmini gibi hizmet alanlarında özel şirketler de faaliyet göstermektedir. Her geçen gün daha fazla gündeme gelen tartışma beraberinde uzay kaynaklarının kullanımı, uzayda madencilik, uzayda mülkiyet hakkı, gökcisimleri ve bunların kaynakları üzerinde egemenlik tesisi gibi bir dizi tartışmayı da beraberinde getirmektedir. Özel şirketlerin bu sayılan faaliyet alanlarına ve bu konu ile ilgili tartışmalara uzay kaynaklarının kullanımı da eklenmiştir. Bu alanda gelişmekte olan hukuk normlarının kurucu metni olan 1967 tarihli Dış Uzay Antlaşması, uzayda egemenlik iddiası ve mülkiyet hakkı tesisine yasak getirmiş ve olası ilhak girişimlerinin gerginliğe yol açmasının önüne geçmek için uzayın insanlığın ortak mirası olduğu iddiasını ortaya atmıştır. Soğuk Savaş döneminde uluslararası ilişkilerde nispeten istikrar sağlayan bu söylem günümüzde gelişen teknoloji ve artan talepler ve uzayın sunduğu potansiyeller sebebiyle hızla hükümsüz kalmaya doğru gitmektedir. Bu çalışmada bu konulara değinilecek ve insanlığın ortak mirası söylemi ve temelini 5 antlaşmanın oluşturduğu uzay hukukunun gerek devletlerin gerekse de gerçek ve tüzel kişilerin uzayda, uzay kaynaklarında mülkiyet ve egemenlik hakkı tesisi iddialarının durumu konusunda bir tartışma yürütülecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Dış Uzay Antlaşması
• İnsanlığın Ortak Mirası
• Özel Mülkiyet
• Özel Şirketler
• Uydular

Kaynakça

1. Adolph, J. (2006). The recent boom in private space development and the necessity of an international framework embracing private property rights to encourage investment. The International Lawyer, 40(4), s. 961-985.
2. Bell, J., & Mitton, J. (Eds.) (2002). Asteroid Rendezvous: NEAR Shoemaker's Adventures at Eros. New York: Cambridge University Press.
3. Brown, D., Cantillo, L., & Webster, G. (2015). NASA Confirms Evidence that Liquid Water Flows on Today’s Mars. NASA. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-confirms-evidence-that-liquid-water-flows-on-todays-mars/ adresinden alındı.
4. Chaben, J. B. (2020). Extending humanity’s reach. Journal of Strategic Security, 13(3), s. 75-98.
5. Cheng, A. F. (1997). Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous: Mission Overview. C. T Russell (Dü) içinde, The Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous Mission (s. 3-29). Dordrecht: Springer.
6. Cheng, B. (1997). Studies in International Space Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7. Christol, C. (1982). The Modern International Law of Outer Space. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
8. Christol, C. Q. (1984). Article 2 of the 1967 principles treaty revisited. Annals Air & Space Law, 9, s. 217-265.

9. Clery, D. (2003). Europe Goes to the Moon. Science. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.science.org/content/article/europe-goes-moon (Son erişim: 29.10.2024) adresinden alındı.
10. Davidson, K. (2005). Final Frontier for Lawyers-Property Rights in Space/Land Claims, Commercial Schemes and Dreams Have Legal Eagles Hovering. Sfgate.com. Ekim 29, 2924 tarihinde https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Final-frontier-for-lawyers-property-rights-in-2564610.php (Son erişim: 29.10.2024) adresinden alındı.
11. Day, D. A. (2004). Whispers in the echo chamber: Why the Media Says the Space Plan Costs a Trillion Dollars. The Space Review. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.thespacereview.com/article/119/1 (Son erişim: 29.10.2024) adresinden alındı.
12. Dinkin, S. (2004). Property Rights and Space Commercialization. The Space Review. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.thespacereview.com/article/141/1 adresinden alındı.
13. Ercan, A., & Gürsel, S. (2022). Değişen uluslararası güvenlik bağlamında uzay güvenliği ve uzayda silahsızlanma çabaları. Gaziantep University Journal of Socal Sciences, 21(2), s. 881-896.
14. Freeland, S. (2005). Up, up and . . . back: The emergence of space tourism and its impact on the international law of outer space. Chicago Journal of International Law, 6(1), s. 1-22.
15. Freeland, S., & Jakhu, R. (2009). Article II. S. Hobe, B. Schmidt-Tedd, K.-U. Schrogl, and G. M. Goh (Dü) içinde Cologne Commentary on Space Law: V. 1, Outer Space Treaty (s. 44-63). Cologne: Carl Heymanns Verlag.
16. Froehlich, A., Seffinga, V., & Qiu, R. (2020). The development of the mandates of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and the Conference on Disarmament (CD) and the Collaboration Between the Forums. A. Froehlich, V. Seffinga, (Dü.) içinde The United Nations and Space Security: Conflicting Mandates Between UNCOPUOS and the CD (s. 29-106). Cham: Springer.
17. Gabrynowicz, J. I. (2004). Space law: Its cold war origins and challenges in the era of globalization. Suffolk University Law Review, 37(4), s. 1041-1065.
18. Galloway, E. (1980). Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Washington: Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate.
19. Gorove, S. (1969). Interpreting article II of the Outer Space Treaty. Fordham Law Review, 37(3), s. 349-354.
20. Gruner, B. (2004). A new hope for international space law: Incorporating nineteenth century first possession principles into the 1967 space treaty for the colonization of outer space in the twenty-first century. Seton Hall Law Review, 35(1), s. 299-357.
21. Hao, H. (2004). China’s Lunar Exploration is not for Helium-3. People’s Daily Online.
22. Hertzfeld, H. R., & von der Dunk, F. G. (2005). Bringing space law into the commercial world: Property rights without sovereignty. Chicago Journal of International Law, 6(1), s. 81-99.
23. Hobe, S. (2009). Historical Background. S. Hobe, B. Schmidt-Tedd & K-U. Schrogl (Dü) içinde Cologne Commentary on Space Law: Outer Space Treaty (Cilt 1) (s. 105-150). Cologne: Carl Heymanns Verlag .
24. Hobe, S., & Hedman, N. (2009). Preamble. S. Hobe, B. Schmidt-Tedd & K-U. Schrogl (Dü) içinde Cologne Commentary on Space Law: Outer Space Treaty (Cilt 1) (s. 151-166). Cologne: Carl Heymanns Verlag.
25. Jaggard, V. (2009). Who Owns the Moon? The Galactic Government vs. the UN. National Geographic. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/space-who-owns-moon-science adresinden alındı.
26. Jakhu, R., & Buzdugan, M. (2008). Development of the natural resources of the Moon and tther celestial bodies: Economic and legal aspects. Astropolitics, 6(3), s. 201-250.
27. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). Kaguya (SELENE). Ekim 29, 2014 tarihinde https://www.kaguya.jaxa.jp/index_e.htm adresinden alındı.
28. Jankowitsch, P. (2015). The Background and History of Space Law. F. G. von der Dunk and F. Tronchetti (Dü) içinde Handbook of Space Law: Research Handbooks in International Law Series (s. 1-26). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
29. Katıman E. (2022). Uluslararası hukukta uzay ajansları ve ulusal uzay hukukunda yasal çerçeve yeterlilik sorunu. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 9(2), s. 66-84.
30. Kato, M., Sasaki, S., Takizawa, Y., & the Kaguya project team. (2010). The Kaguya Mission overview. Space Science Reviews, 154, 3-19.
31. Koebler, J. (2013). Meet the Man Who Owns the Moon. U.S. News. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/03/25/meet-the-man-who-owns-the-moon adresinden alındı.
32. Koplow, D. A. (2019). Exoatmospheric plowshares: using a nuclear explosive device for planetary defense against an incoming asteroid. UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs, 23(1), s. 76-158.
33. Lachs, M. (2010). The Law of Outer Space: An Experince in Contemporary Law Making. Leiden: Koninlijke Brill.
34. Lyall, F., & Larsen, P. B. (2018). Space Law: A Treatise (2d ed.). New York: Routledge.
35. Malanczuk, P. (1997). Actors: States, International Organizations, Private Entities. G. Lafferranderie and D. Crowther (Dü) içinde Outlook on Space Law Over the Next 30 Years (s. 23-36). The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
36. Malik, T. (2020). Japan Launches Kaguya Probe on Moon Mission. Space.com. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.space.com/4345-japan-launches-kaguya-probe-moon-mission.html adresinden alındı.
37. Mansfield, S. (2024). Private Sector Innovation and Its Impact on the Space Industry. Space Daily. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Private_Sector_Innovation_and_Its_Impact_on_the_Space_Industry_999.html adresinden alındı.
38. Marchisio, S. (2005). The Evolutionary stages of the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Journal of Space Law, 31, s. 220-221.
39. Mayence, J.-F. (2017). The Role of UNCOPUOS in the International Regulation of Non-governmental Space Activities. J. Wouters, P. De Man, R. Hansen (Dü) içinde Commercial Uses of Space and Space Tourism (s. 254-265). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
40. Mirzai, S. (2023). The Rise of Private Companies in Space Exploration: Revolutionizing the Final Frontier. Medium. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://medium.com/techcrate/the-rise-of-private-companies-in-space-exploration-revolutionizing-the-final-frontier-71d0a273b419 adresinden alındı.
41. Moltz, J. C. (2011). The Indian Space Program: Rising to a Challenge. J. C. Moltz (Eds.), Asia's Space Race: National Motivations, Regional Rivalries, and International Risks içinde (s. 110-135). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
42. Moskowitz, C. (2008). Proof! Water Ice Found on Mars. Space.com. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.space.com/5546-proof-water-ice-mars.html adresinden alındı.
43. Moskowitz, C. (2008). Minerals Needed for Life Found on Mars. Space.com. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.space.com/5566-minerals-needed-life-mars.html adresinden alındı.
44. Moskowitz, C. (2013). Lunar Real Estate Agent has 'Sold' 7.5% of Moon. Space.com. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.space.com/20948-moon-property-ownership.html adresinden alındı.
45. Nam, Y. (2023). One-way ticket to Mars: The privatisatin of the space industry and its environmental impact on earth and beyond. Nortestern Journal of Law and Social Poliy, 19(1), s. 150-176.
46. NASA, (2004). Vision for Space Exploration. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.nasa.gov/history/vision-for-space-exploration/ adresinden alındı.
47. Parthasarathy, K. S. (2006). Mining the Moon. The Tribune.
48. Qizhi, H. (1997). The Outer Space Treaty in perspective. Journal of Space Law, 25(2), s. 93-100.
49. Sattler, R. (2005). Transporting a legal system for property rights: From the earth to the stars. Chicago Journal of International Law, 6(1), s. 23-44.
50. Schmitt, H. H. (2004). Mining the Moon. Popular Mechanics, 181(10), s. 58-61.
51. Schmitt, H. (2006). Return to the Moon: Exploration, enterprise, and energy in the Human Settlement of Space. New York, NY: Copernicus Books.
52. Schultz, C. (2013). Dennis Hope Thinks He Owns the Moon. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/dennis-hope-thinks-he-owns-the-moon-1460757/ adresinden alındı.
53. Sharma, M. (2021). The Privatized Frontier: The Ethical Implications and Role of Private Companies in Space Exploration. The Space Review. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4238/1 adresinden alındı.
54. Singh, N., & MacWhinney, E. (1989). Nuclear Weapons and Contemporary International Law. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
55. Space Daily (2004). The Martian Methane Surprise. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.spacedaily.com/news/mars-life-04y.html adresinden alındı.
56. Steigerwald, W. (2021). First You See It, Then You Don’t: Scientists Closer to Explaining Mars Methane Mystery. NASA. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/first-you-see-it-then-you-dont-scientists-closer-to-explaining-mars-methane-mystery/ adresinden alındı.
57. Sutter, P. (2024). What's Behind the Martian Methane Mystery?. Space.com. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.space.com/what-is-behind-martian-methane-mystery adresinden alındı.
58. The European Space Agency (ESA) (2008). Chandrayaan-1 Now in Lunar Orbit. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/Chandrayaan-1_now_in_lunar_orbit adresinden alındı.
59. The White House (2006). A Renewed Spirit of Discovery. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/infocus/space/index.html adresinden alındı.
60. Tillman, N. T. (2018). Water on Mars: Exploration & Evidence. Space.com. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.space.com/17048-water-on-mars.html adresinden alındı.
61. Toosi, N. (2019). Who Owns the Moon?. Politico. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2019/06/13/space-travel-moon-resources-000899/ adresinden alındı.
62. Tronchetti, F. (2009). The exploitation of natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies: A Proposal for a legal regime. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
63. Tronchetti, F. (2015). Legal Aspects of the Military Uses of Outer Space. F. G. von der Dunk and F. Tronchetti (Dü) içinde Handbook of Space Law: Research Handbooks in International Law Series (s. 331-381). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
64. Undseth, M., Jolly, C., & Olivari. M. (2021). Evolving Public-Private Relations in the Space Sector: Lessons Learned for the post COVID-19 Era. OECD Science, Technology And Industry Policy Papers, No. 114. OECD Publishing.
65. United Nations (1987). Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. New York: United Nations, Treaty Series 1155, 331.
66. Urvoy, H. (2023). Regulating Space: Who is Keeping Track of Private Companies Trying to Reach the Stars?. Euro News. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.euronews.com/2023/05/11/regulating-space-who-is-keeping-track-of-private-companies-trying-to-reach-the-stars adresinden alındı.
67. Wall, M. (2011). NASA Rover Finds Convincing Evidence of Water on Ancient Mars. Space.com. https://www.space.com/13862-mars-rover-opportunity-ancient-water-evidence.html adresinden alındı.
68. Weinzierl, M. (2018). Space, the final frontier. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 32(2), s. 173-192.
69. Witasse, O., Lefèvre, F., & Forget, F. (2009). Mars, Methane and Mysteries. The European Space Agency-ESA. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Mars_methane_and_mysteries adresinden alındı.
70. Viikari, L. (2002). From Manganese Nodules to Lunar Regolith. Rovaniemi: University of Lapland. Von der Dunk, F. G. (1997). The dark side of the Moon, the status of the Moon: Public concepts and private enterprise. College of Law, Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications Law Program Faculty Publications, 49, s. 119-124.
71. Von der Dunk, F. G. (2015). International Space Law. F. G. von der Dunk and F. Tronchetti (Dü) içinde Handbook of Space Law: Research Handbooks in International Law Series (s. 29-126). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
72. Von der Dunk, F. G. (2020). Advanced Introduction to Space Law. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.
73. Von der Dunk, F. G. (2023). Property rights over the Moon or on the Moon? The legality of space resource exploitation on celestial bodies. Journal of Law & Innovation, 6(1), s. 95-134.
74. Voosen, P. (2018). Martian Methane-Spotted in 2004-has Mysteriously Vanished. Science. Ekim 29, 2024 tarihinde https://www.science.org/content/article/martian-methane-spotted-2004-has-mysteriously-vanished adresinden alındı.