Gelişmekte Olan Bir Ekonomide Toplumsal Cinsiyet Temelli Girişimciliğe Sosyal Bilişsel Bir Bakış: Türkiye Örneği

Öz

Bu çalışma, Türkiye'deki girişimcilik niyetlerinde görülen cinsiyet farkını; algılanan beceriler, fırsat tanıma ve başarısızlık korkusu mekanizmaları üzerinden incelemektedir. Toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı sosyalleşme (Eagly, 1987) ve sosyal bilişsel teorilere (Bandura, 1997) dayanan araştırma, bu farkı kadınların sözde riskten kaçınma eğilimine bağlayan "eksiklik temelli" açıklamaları sorgulamaktadır. Küresel Girişimcilik Monitörü (GEM) verilerinin analizi, kadınların girişimcilik niyeti bildirme olasılığının anlamlı derecede düşük olduğunu ve bu farkın temel olarak düşük beceri ve fırsat algısından kaynaklandığını göstermektedir. Buna karşın, başarısızlık korkusundaki cinsiyet farkı istatistiksel olarak anlamsızdır ve niyet üzerinde belirleyici değildir. Bulgular, eşitsizliğin doğuştan gelen psikolojik eksikliklerden ziyade toplumsal olarak inşa edilen öz-algılardan kaynaklandığını ortaya koymakta ve bireysel müdahaleler yerine yapısal çözümlerin gerekliliğini vurgulamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• toplumsal cinsiyet
• toplumsal cinsiyet temelli girişimcilik
• kadın girişimciliği
• girişimcilik niyeti
• GEM

A Social Cognitive Perspective on Gendered Entrepreneurship In an Emerging Economy: Evidence From Türkiye

Öz

This study investigates the gender gap in entrepreneurial intentions in Türkiye by examining perceived skills, opportunity recognition, and fear of failure. Drawing on gendered socialization (Eagly, 1987) and social cognitive theories (Bandura, 1997), the research challenges deficit-based explanations attributing this disparity to women’s alleged risk aversion. Analysis of Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data reveals that women are significantly less likely to report entrepreneurial intentions, a gap primarily driven by lower perceived skills and opportunity perceptions. Conversely, gender differences in fear of failure are statistically non-significant and do not predict intentions. The findings suggest that gender disparities stem from socially constructed self-perceptions rather than inherent psychological deficits, highlighting the need for structural rather than individual-level interventions.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• gender
• gendered entrepreneurship
• women entrepreneurship
• entrepreneurial intention
• GEM

Teşekkür

Special thanks to Global Entrepreneurship Monitor opening up this data for researchers.

Kaynakça

1. Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 595–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x
2. Ahl, H., & Nelson, T. (2015). How policy positions women entrepreneurs: A comparative analysis of state discourse in Sweden and the United States. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(2), 273-291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.08.002
3. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
4. Alsos, G. A., Clausen, T. H., Hytti, U., & Solvoll, S. (2016). Entrepreneurs’ social identity and the preference of causal and effectual behaviours in start-up processes. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 28(3–4), 234–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2016.1155742
5. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
6. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
7. Bruin, A., Brush, C. G., & Welter, F. (2007). Advancing a framework for coherent research on women’s entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 323–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00176.x
8. Brush, C. G., Bruin, A., & Welter, F. (2009). A gender‐aware framework for women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566260910942318

9. Brush, C., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T., & Welter, F. (2019). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-9
10. Brush, C., Manolova, T., Rivers, C., & Welter, F. (2020). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Edward Elgar Publishing.
11. Calas, M. B., Smircich, L., & Bourne, K. A. (2009). Extending the boundaries: Reframing “entrepreneurship as social change” through feminist perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 34(3), 552–569.
12. Chen, C. C., Greene, P. G., & Crick, A. (1998). Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers? Journal of Business Venturing, 13(4), 295–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00029-3
13. Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4), 558–577. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558
14. Connell, R. W. (1998). Masculinities and globalization. Men and Masculinities, 1(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X98001001001
15. Dedeoglu, S. (2012). Equality, protection or discrimination: Gender equality policies in Turkey. Social Politics, 19(2), 269-290.
16. Dy, A. M., Marlow, S., & Martin, L. (2016). A web of opportunity or the same old story? Women's digital entrepreneurship and the role of masculine archetypes. European Management Review, 18(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726716650730
17. Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
18. Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 458–476). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49
19. Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women’s educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(4), 585–609. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb01049.x
20. Elam, A. B., Brush, C. G., Greene, P. G., Baumer, B., Dean, M., & Heavlow, R. (2023). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2022/2023 Women’s Entrepreneurship Report: Challenging Bias and Stereotypes. Global Entrepreneurship Research Association.
21. Exley, C. L., & Kessler, J. B. (2022). The gender gap in self-promotion. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 137(3), 1345–1381. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac003
22. Fernandes, M., Lupo, L., Benya, A., Dedeoglu, S., Mezzadri, A., & Prügl, E. (2023). Social reproduction, women’s labour and systems of life: A conversation. Dialogues in Human Geography, 13(3), 473-483. https://doi.org/10.1177/20438206231177072
23. Franczak, J., Lanivich, S. E., & Adomako, S. (2023). Filling institutional voids: Combinative effects of institutional shortcomings and gender on the alertness–Opportunity recognition relationship. Journal of Business Research, 155, 113444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113444
24. Foss, N. J., Klein, P. G., & Bjørnskov, C. (2019). The context of entrepreneurial judgment: organizations, markets, and institutions. Journal of Management Studies, 56(6), 1197-1213.
25. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. (2024). GEM 2023/2024 Global Report: 25 Years and Growing. Global Entrepreneurship Research Association.
26. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. (2025). GEM adult population survey (APS) data [Data set]. https://www.gemconsortium.org/data
27. Gupta, V. K., Guo, C., Canever, M., Yim, H. R., Sraw, G. K., & Liu, M. (2014). Institutional environment for entrepreneurship in rapidly emerging major economies: the case of Brazil, China, India, and Korea. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 10(2), 367-384.
28. Gurel, E., Madanoglu, M., & Altinay, L. (2021). Gender, risk-taking and entrepreneurial intentions: assessing the impact of higher education longitudinally. Education + Training, 63(5), 777-792. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-08-2019-0190
29. Haque, M. R., Kour, M., & Mahin, M. H. (2025). The role of family support, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial education in developing entrepreneurial intentions in developing countries. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 16(3), 12143-12169.
30. Hamdani, N. A., Ramadani, V., Anggadwita, G., Maulida, G. S., Zuferi, R., & Maalaoui, A. (2023). Gender stereotype perception, perceived social support and self-efficacy in increasing women's entrepreneurial intentions. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 29(6), 1290-1313. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-02-2023-0157
31. Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
32. Hossain, M. S., Lim, W. M., & Islam, M. A. (2024). Women entrepreneurship: the role of education, national culture, and various supports. International Journal of Business and Emerging Markets, 16(3), 429-452.
33. Kamberidou, I. (2020). “Distinguished” women entrepreneurs in the digital economy and the multitasking whirlpool. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 9(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-020-0114-y
34. Klyver, K., Nielsen, S. L., & Evald, M. R. (2013). Women's self-employment: An act of institutional (dis) integration? A multilevel, cross-country study. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(4), 474-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.07.002
35. Koellinger, P., Minniti, M., & Schade, C. (2013). Gender differences in entrepreneurial propensity. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 75(2), 213–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00689.x
36. Kozan, M. K., Oksoy, D., & Ozsoy, O. (2012). Owner sacrifice and small business growth. Journal of World Business, 47(3), 409-419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2011.05.008
37. Langowitz, N., & Minniti, M. (2007). The entrepreneurial propensity of women. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00177.x
38. Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (2019). Statistical analysis with missing data (3rd ed.). Wiley.
39. Marlow, S., & McAdam, M. (2013). Gender and entrepreneurship: Advancing debate and challenging myths; exploring the mystery of the under-performing female entrepreneur. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 19(1), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551311299288
40. Martiarena, A., Levie, J., Marlow, S., Hart, M., & Bonner, K. (2023). A ‘deviant men’ theory of business expectations in nascent entrepreneurs. Small Business Economics, 61, 909–930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-022-00716-4
41. Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.23
42. Minniti, M., & Naudé, W. (2010). What do we know about the patterns and determinants of female entrepreneurship across countries? The European Journal of Development Research, 22(3), 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.17
43. Minniti, M., & Nardone, C. (2007). Being in someone else’s shoes: The role of gender in nascent entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 28(2–3), 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-006-9017-y
44. Mozahem, N. A., & Adlouni, R. O. (2021). Using entrepreneurial self-efficacy as an indirect measure of entrepreneurial education. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(1), 100385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100385
45. Nalbant-Efe, G. (2025). Turkiye'de ne egitimde ne istihdamdaki (NEIY) genc kadinlar. Fiscaoeconomia, 9 (Toplumsal Cinsiyet Özel Sayısı), 293-320.
46. Neneh, B. N. (2022). Entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intention: the role of social support and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Studies in Higher Education, 47(3), 587–603. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1770716
47. Ozasir Kacar, S., Essers, C., & Benschop, Y. (2023). A contextual analysis of entrepreneurial identity and experience: women entrepreneurs in Turkey. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 35(5-6), 460-481.
48. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
49. Seckin-Halac, D. & Seckin-Celik, T. (2019). A qualitative look into gendered entrepreneurship in Turkey. Istanbul Business Research, 47(2), 105-123.
50. Scott, J. W. (1996). Only paradoxes to offer: French feminists and the rights of man. Harvard University Press.
51. Shahid, S., Mei, M. Q., & Battisti, M. (2024). Entrepreneurial fear of failure and exit intention: The moderating role of a conducive social environment. International Small Business Journal, 42(6), 699-725. https://doi.org/10.1177/02662426241229878
52. Shane, S. (2003). A general theory of entrepreneurship: The individual-opportunity nexus. Edward Elgar.
53. Shinnar, R. S., Giacomin, O., & Janssen, F. (2012). Entrepreneurial perceptions and intentions: The role of gender and culture. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 465–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00509.x
54. Shinnar, R. S., Hsu, D. K., Powell, B. C., & Zhou, H. (2018). Entrepreneurial intentions and start-ups: are women or men more likely to enact their intentions?. International Small Business Journal, 36(1), 60-80.
55. Spector, P. E. (2019). Do not cross me: Optimizing the use of cross-sectional designs. Journal of Business and Psychology, 34(2), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-09613-8
56. Vamvaka, V., Stoforos, C., Palaskas, T., & Botsaris, C. (2020). Attitude toward entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intention: Dimensionality, structural relationships, and gender differences. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 9(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-020-0112-0
57. Verheul, I., Thurik, R., Grilo, I., & van der Zwan, P. (2012). Explaining preferences and actual involvement in self-employment: Gender and the entrepreneurial personality. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 325–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.02.009
58. Wagner, J. (2007). What a difference a Y makes-female and male nascent entrepreneurs in Germany. Small Business Economics, 28(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-0259-x
59. Welter, F. (2011). Contextualizing entrepreneurship—Conceptual challenges and ways forward. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(1), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00427.x
60. Welter, F., Baker, T., Audretsch, D. B., & Gartner, W. B. (2017). Everyday entrepreneurship—a call for entrepreneurship research to embrace entrepreneurial diversity. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(3), 311-321.
61. Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00179.x
62. World Bank. (2022). Gender and the Economy: Removing Barriers to Women's Entrepreneurship. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
63. Zhao, H., Seibert, S. E., & Hills, G. E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1265–1272. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1265