Pediatric Dermatological Emergencies: An Overview
Yıl 2013,
Cilt: 5 , 1 - 14, 06.11.2013
Iffat Hassan
,
Parvaiz Anwar
Öz
Dermatological emergencies including those in pediatric age group comprise of dermatoses where there is severe alterations in structure and function of the skin. Some of these may result in acute skin failure that needs early recognition, and often hospitalization, with careful monitoring and at times management in intensive care unit on the pattern of 100% burns in order to minimize the associated morbidity and mortality. Multi-disciplinary approach with synchronized team of dermatologist, pediatrician, critical care physician and skilled nursing staff is advisable. In this review article, we describe various pediatric dermatological emergencies commonly encountered in clinical practice and observed in various studies.
Kaynakça
- Schachner LA, Hansen RG. Preface. In: Schachner LA, Hansen RC, editors. Pediatric Dermatology. 2nd edition. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995; p IX.
- Dolan OM, Bingham EA, Glasgow JF, Burrows D, Corbett JR. An audit of dermatology in a pediatric accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1994; 11: 158-61.
- Auvin S, Imiela A, Catteau B, Hue V, Martinot A. Pediatric skin disorders encountered in an emergency hospital facility: a prospective study. Acta Derm Venereol 2004; 84: 451-4.
- Nelson KG. An index of severity for acute pediatric illness. Am J Public Health 1980; 70: 804-7.
- Sarkar R, Basu S, Patwari AK, Sharma RC, Dutta AK, Sardana K. An appraisal of pediatric dermatological emergencies. Indian Pediatr 2000; 37: 425-429.
- Ragunatha S, Inamadar AC. Neonatal dermatological emergencies. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2010; 76: 328-40.
- Graham Brown RAC. The ages of man and their dermatoses. In: Champion RH, Buston JL, Burns DA, Duathrach SM, Editors. Textbook of Dermatology. 6th edition. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1998, p 32
- Sharma VK, Dhar S. Clinical pattern of cutaneous drug eruption among children and adolescents in North India. Pediatr Dermatol 1995; 12: 178-83.
- Sarkar R, Garg VK. Erythroderma in children. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2010; 76: 341-7.
- Hoeger PH, Harper JI. Neonatal erythroderma: Differential diagnosis and management of the "red baby". Arch Dis Child 1998; 79: 186-91.
- Kumar S, Sehgal VN, Sharma RC. Common genodermatoses. Int J Dermatol 1996; 35: 685-94.
- Bonifazi E, Meneghini CL. Atopic eczema in the first six months of life. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 1989; 144: 20-2.
- Sarkar R, Basu S, Sharma RC. Neonatal and infantile erythroderma. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137: 822-3.
- Chang SE, Choi JH, Koh JK. Congenital erythrodermic psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1999; 140: 538-9.
- Nicolis GD, Helwig EB. Exfoliative dermatitis: A clinic pathologic study of 135 cases. Arch Dermatol 1973; 108: 788-97.
- Sehgal VN, Srivastava G. Exfoliative dermatitis: a prospective study of 80 patients. Dermatologica 1986; 173: 278-84.
- Breathnach SM. Drug reactions. In: Champion RH, Burton I, Burns DA, Breathnach SM, editors. Textbook of Dermatology. 4th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1988. p. 3370-1.
- Danno K, Kume M, Ohta M, Utani A, Ohno S, Kobashi Y. Erythroderma with generalized lymphadenopathy induced by phenytoin. J Dermatol 1989; 16: 392-6.
- Kucukguclu S, Tuncok Y, Ozkan H, Guven H, Uguz A, Maltepe F. Multiple dose activated charcoal in an accidental vancomycin overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996; 34: 83-6.
- Pruszkowski A, Bodemer C, Fraitag S, Teillac Hamel D, Amoric JC, de Prost Y. Neonatal and infantile erythroderma: A retrospective study of 51 patients. Arch Dermatol 2000; 136: 875-80.
- De Saint Basile G, Le Deist F, de Villartay JP, Cerf Bensussan N, Journet O, Brousse N, et al. Restricted heterogeneity of T lymphyocytes in combined immunodeficiency with hypereosinophilia (Omenn's syndrome). J Clin Invest 1991; 84: 1352-9.
- Alain G, Carrier C, Beaumier L, Bernard J, Lemay M, Lavoie A. In utero acute graft versus host disease in a neonate with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 29: 862-5.
- Ohto H, Anderson KC. Post transfusion graft versus host disease in Japanese newborns. Transfusion 1996; 36: 117-23.
- Shwayder T, Akland T. Neonatal skin barrier: Structure, function, and disorders. Dermatol Ther 2005; 18: 87-103.
- Mosowtz DG, Fowler AJ, Heyman MB, Cohen SP, Crumrine D, Elias PM. Pathophysiologic basis for growth failure in children with ichthyosis: an evaluation of cutaneous ultrastructure, epidermal permeability barrier function, and energy expenditure. J Pediatr 2004; 145: 82
- Elias PM, Williams LM, Wolleran WM, Jiang YJ, Schumth M. Pathogenesis of permeability barrier abnormalities in ichthyosis: Inherited disorders of lipid metabolism. J Lipid Res 2008; 49: 694-714.
- Sarkar R. Neonatal and Infantile erythroderma: 'The red baby'. Indian J Dermatol 2006; 51: 178-81.
- Frigas E, Park MA. Acute urticaria and angioedema: diagnostic and treatment considerations. Am J Clin Dermatol 2009; 10: 239-50.
- Bruckner AL. Epidermolysis bullosa. In: Eichenfield LF, Frieden IJ, Esterly NB, editors. Neonatal Dermatology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2008. p. 159Mathias RC, Jayaseelan E, Augustine M. Spectrum of pediatric dermatological emergencies at a tertiary care hospital in India: a descriptive study. Int J Dermatol 2013; 52: 27-31.
- Johnston GA. Treatment of bullous impetigo and the staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2004; 2: 439-46.
- Moss RL, Musemeche CA, Kosloske AM. Necrotizing fascitis in children: prompt recognition and aggressive therapy improve survival. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31: 1142-6.
- Hsieh WH, Yang PH, Chao HC, Lai JY. Neonatal necrotizing fascitis: A report of three cases and review of literature. Pediatrics 1999; 103: 53.
- Sauerbrei A, Wutzler P. Neonatal varicella. J Perinatol 2001; 21: 545-9.
- Sterner G, Forsgren M, Enocksson E, Grandien M, Granstro'm G. Varicella -zoster infections in late pregnancy. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 71: 30-5.
- Prober CG, Gershon AA, Grose C, McCracken GH, Nelson JD. Consensus: varicella zoster infections in pregnancy and the neonatal period. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9: 865-9. Kimberlin DW. Neonatal herpes simplex infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17: 1-13.
- Brown ZA, Wald A, Morrow RA, Selke S, Zeh J, Corey L. Effect of serologic status and cesarean delivery on transmission rates of herpes simplex virus from mother to infant. JAMA 2003; 289: 203-9.
- Chapman RL. Candida infections in neonate. Curr Opin Pediatr 2003; 15: 91-102.
- Darmstadt GL, Dinulos JG, Miller Z. Congenital cutaneous candidiasis: Clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and management guidelines. Pediatrics 2000; 105: 438-44.
- Rowen JL, Atkins JT, Levy ML, Baer SC, Baker CJ. Invasive fungal dermatitis in the ≤1000-gram neonate. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 682-7.
- Baley JE, Silverman RA. Systemic candidiasis: Cutaneous manifestations in low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 1998; 2: 211-5.
- Ayangco L and Rogers RS. Oral manifestations of erythema multiforme. Dermatol Clin 2003; 21: 195-7.
- Prendiville J. Stevens Johnsons Syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Adv Dermatol 2002; 18: 151
- Arbuckle HA, Morelli J. Holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency presenting as ichthyosis. Pediatr Dermatol 2006; 23: 142-4.
- Maguiness S, Guenther L. Kasabach Merritt syndrome. J Cut Med Surg 2002; 6: 335-9.
- Rodriguez V, Lee A, Witman PM, Anderson PA. Kasabach Merritt phenomenon: Case series and retrospective review of the mayo clinic experience. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2009; 31: 522-6.
- Edlich RF, Cross CL, Dahlstrom JJ, Long WB 3rd. Modern concepts of the diagnosis and treatment of purpura fulminans. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 2008; 27: 191-6.
- Marlar RA, Neumann A. Neonatal purpura fulminans due to homozygous protein C or protein S deficiencies. Semin Thromb Hemost 1990; 60: 299-309.
- Thapa R, Pramanik S, Dhar S, Kundu R. Neonatal Kawasaki disease with multiple coronary aneurysms and thrombocytopenia. Pediatr Dermatol 2007; 24: 662-4.
- Zeb A, Darmstadt GL. Sclerema neonatorum: a review of nomenclature, clinical presentation, histological features, differential diagnoses and management. J Perinatol 2008; 28: 453-60.
- Thong BY, Chan Y. Anaphylaxis during surgical and interventional procedures. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2004; 92: 619-28.
- Giovannitt J, Bennett CR. Assessment of allergy to local anesthetics. J Am Dent Assoc 1979; 98: 701-6.
- Briet S, Rueff F, Przybilla B. “Deep impact” contact allergy after subcutaneous injection of local anesthetics. Contact Dermatitis 2001; 45: 296-7.
- Curley RK, Macfarlane AW, King CM. Contact sensitivity to the amide anesthetics lidocaine, prilocaine, and mepivacaine: case report and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 1986; 122: 924-6.
- Chin TM, Fellner MJ. Allergic hypersensitivity to lidocaine hydrochloride. Int J Dermatol 1980; 19: 147-8.
- Chiu CY, Lin TY, Hsia SH, Lai SH, Wong KS. Systemic anaphylaxis following local lidocaine administration during a dental procedure. Ped Emerg Care 2004; 20: 178-80.
- Schechter JF, Wilkison RD, Carpio JD. Anaphylaxis following the use of bacitracin ointment. Arch Dermatol 1984; 120: 909-11.
- Phillips TJ, Rogers GS, Kanj LF. Bacitracin anaphylaxis. J Geriatr Dermatol 1995; 3: 83-5.
- Comaish JS, Cunliffe WJ. Absorption of drugs from various ulcers: a cause of anaphylaxis. Br J Clin Pract 1967; 21: 97.
- Daughters D, Zackheim H, Maibach H. Urticaria and anphylactoid reactions after topical application of mechlorethamine. Arch Dermatol 1973; 107: 429-30.
- Okano M, Nomura M, Hata S, Okada N, Sato K, Kitano Y, et al. Anaphylactic symptoms due to chlorhexidine gluconate. Arch Dermatol 1989; 125: 50-52.
- Pharm NH, Weiner JM, Reisner GS, Baldo BA. Anaphylaxis to chlorhexidine: case report: implication of immunoglobulin E antibodies and identifi cation of an allergenic determinant. Clin Exp Allergy 2000; 30: 1001
- Malde B, Ditto AM. Anaphylaxis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2004; 25: 52-3.
- Tang AW. A practical guide to anaphylaxis. Am Fam Physician 2003; 68: 1325-32.
- Martin JB, Ruskin J. Faintness, syncope, and seizures. In: Wilson JD, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al. editors. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1991: p 134-40.
- Bircher AJ, Messmer SL, Surber C, Rufli T. Delayed-type hypersensitivity to subcutaneous lidocaine with tolerance to articaine: confirmation by in vivo and in vitro tests. Contact Dermatitis 1996; 24: 387-9.
- Whalen JD. Delayed type hypersensitivity after subcutaneous administration of amide anesthetic. Arch Dermatol 1996; 132: 1256-7.
- Kaufman JM, Hale EK, Ahinoff RA, Cohen DE. Cutaneous lidocaine allergy confirmed by patch testing. J Drugs Dermatol 2002; 2: 192-4.
- Amsler E, Flahault A, Mathelier-Fusade P, Aractingi S. Evaluation of re-challenge in patients with suspected lidocaine allergy. Dermatology 2004; 208: 109
- Delgado Escueta AV, Wasterlain C, Treiman DM, Porter RJ. Current concepts in neurology: Management of status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 1982; 306: 1337-40.
- Selbst SM. Office management of status epilepticus. Pediatr Emerg Care 1991; 7: 106-9.
- Vaishampayan SS, Sharma YK, Das AL, Verma R. Emergencies in dermatology: Acute skin failure. MJAFI 2006; 62: 56-9.
- Inamadar AC, Palit A. Acute skin failure: Concept, causes, consequences and care. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2005; 71: 379-85.
- Modi N. Management of fluid balance in the very immature neonate. Arch Dis Chil Fetal Neonatal Ed 2004; 89: 108-11.
Yıl 2013,
Cilt: 5 , 1 - 14, 06.11.2013
Iffat Hassan
,
Parvaiz Anwar
Kaynakça
- Schachner LA, Hansen RG. Preface. In: Schachner LA, Hansen RC, editors. Pediatric Dermatology. 2nd edition. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995; p IX.
- Dolan OM, Bingham EA, Glasgow JF, Burrows D, Corbett JR. An audit of dermatology in a pediatric accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1994; 11: 158-61.
- Auvin S, Imiela A, Catteau B, Hue V, Martinot A. Pediatric skin disorders encountered in an emergency hospital facility: a prospective study. Acta Derm Venereol 2004; 84: 451-4.
- Nelson KG. An index of severity for acute pediatric illness. Am J Public Health 1980; 70: 804-7.
- Sarkar R, Basu S, Patwari AK, Sharma RC, Dutta AK, Sardana K. An appraisal of pediatric dermatological emergencies. Indian Pediatr 2000; 37: 425-429.
- Ragunatha S, Inamadar AC. Neonatal dermatological emergencies. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2010; 76: 328-40.
- Graham Brown RAC. The ages of man and their dermatoses. In: Champion RH, Buston JL, Burns DA, Duathrach SM, Editors. Textbook of Dermatology. 6th edition. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1998, p 32
- Sharma VK, Dhar S. Clinical pattern of cutaneous drug eruption among children and adolescents in North India. Pediatr Dermatol 1995; 12: 178-83.
- Sarkar R, Garg VK. Erythroderma in children. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2010; 76: 341-7.
- Hoeger PH, Harper JI. Neonatal erythroderma: Differential diagnosis and management of the "red baby". Arch Dis Child 1998; 79: 186-91.
- Kumar S, Sehgal VN, Sharma RC. Common genodermatoses. Int J Dermatol 1996; 35: 685-94.
- Bonifazi E, Meneghini CL. Atopic eczema in the first six months of life. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 1989; 144: 20-2.
- Sarkar R, Basu S, Sharma RC. Neonatal and infantile erythroderma. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137: 822-3.
- Chang SE, Choi JH, Koh JK. Congenital erythrodermic psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1999; 140: 538-9.
- Nicolis GD, Helwig EB. Exfoliative dermatitis: A clinic pathologic study of 135 cases. Arch Dermatol 1973; 108: 788-97.
- Sehgal VN, Srivastava G. Exfoliative dermatitis: a prospective study of 80 patients. Dermatologica 1986; 173: 278-84.
- Breathnach SM. Drug reactions. In: Champion RH, Burton I, Burns DA, Breathnach SM, editors. Textbook of Dermatology. 4th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1988. p. 3370-1.
- Danno K, Kume M, Ohta M, Utani A, Ohno S, Kobashi Y. Erythroderma with generalized lymphadenopathy induced by phenytoin. J Dermatol 1989; 16: 392-6.
- Kucukguclu S, Tuncok Y, Ozkan H, Guven H, Uguz A, Maltepe F. Multiple dose activated charcoal in an accidental vancomycin overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996; 34: 83-6.
- Pruszkowski A, Bodemer C, Fraitag S, Teillac Hamel D, Amoric JC, de Prost Y. Neonatal and infantile erythroderma: A retrospective study of 51 patients. Arch Dermatol 2000; 136: 875-80.
- De Saint Basile G, Le Deist F, de Villartay JP, Cerf Bensussan N, Journet O, Brousse N, et al. Restricted heterogeneity of T lymphyocytes in combined immunodeficiency with hypereosinophilia (Omenn's syndrome). J Clin Invest 1991; 84: 1352-9.
- Alain G, Carrier C, Beaumier L, Bernard J, Lemay M, Lavoie A. In utero acute graft versus host disease in a neonate with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 29: 862-5.
- Ohto H, Anderson KC. Post transfusion graft versus host disease in Japanese newborns. Transfusion 1996; 36: 117-23.
- Shwayder T, Akland T. Neonatal skin barrier: Structure, function, and disorders. Dermatol Ther 2005; 18: 87-103.
- Mosowtz DG, Fowler AJ, Heyman MB, Cohen SP, Crumrine D, Elias PM. Pathophysiologic basis for growth failure in children with ichthyosis: an evaluation of cutaneous ultrastructure, epidermal permeability barrier function, and energy expenditure. J Pediatr 2004; 145: 82
- Elias PM, Williams LM, Wolleran WM, Jiang YJ, Schumth M. Pathogenesis of permeability barrier abnormalities in ichthyosis: Inherited disorders of lipid metabolism. J Lipid Res 2008; 49: 694-714.
- Sarkar R. Neonatal and Infantile erythroderma: 'The red baby'. Indian J Dermatol 2006; 51: 178-81.
- Frigas E, Park MA. Acute urticaria and angioedema: diagnostic and treatment considerations. Am J Clin Dermatol 2009; 10: 239-50.
- Bruckner AL. Epidermolysis bullosa. In: Eichenfield LF, Frieden IJ, Esterly NB, editors. Neonatal Dermatology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2008. p. 159Mathias RC, Jayaseelan E, Augustine M. Spectrum of pediatric dermatological emergencies at a tertiary care hospital in India: a descriptive study. Int J Dermatol 2013; 52: 27-31.
- Johnston GA. Treatment of bullous impetigo and the staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2004; 2: 439-46.
- Moss RL, Musemeche CA, Kosloske AM. Necrotizing fascitis in children: prompt recognition and aggressive therapy improve survival. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31: 1142-6.
- Hsieh WH, Yang PH, Chao HC, Lai JY. Neonatal necrotizing fascitis: A report of three cases and review of literature. Pediatrics 1999; 103: 53.
- Sauerbrei A, Wutzler P. Neonatal varicella. J Perinatol 2001; 21: 545-9.
- Sterner G, Forsgren M, Enocksson E, Grandien M, Granstro'm G. Varicella -zoster infections in late pregnancy. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 71: 30-5.
- Prober CG, Gershon AA, Grose C, McCracken GH, Nelson JD. Consensus: varicella zoster infections in pregnancy and the neonatal period. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9: 865-9. Kimberlin DW. Neonatal herpes simplex infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17: 1-13.
- Brown ZA, Wald A, Morrow RA, Selke S, Zeh J, Corey L. Effect of serologic status and cesarean delivery on transmission rates of herpes simplex virus from mother to infant. JAMA 2003; 289: 203-9.
- Chapman RL. Candida infections in neonate. Curr Opin Pediatr 2003; 15: 91-102.
- Darmstadt GL, Dinulos JG, Miller Z. Congenital cutaneous candidiasis: Clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and management guidelines. Pediatrics 2000; 105: 438-44.
- Rowen JL, Atkins JT, Levy ML, Baer SC, Baker CJ. Invasive fungal dermatitis in the ≤1000-gram neonate. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 682-7.
- Baley JE, Silverman RA. Systemic candidiasis: Cutaneous manifestations in low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 1998; 2: 211-5.
- Ayangco L and Rogers RS. Oral manifestations of erythema multiforme. Dermatol Clin 2003; 21: 195-7.
- Prendiville J. Stevens Johnsons Syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Adv Dermatol 2002; 18: 151
- Arbuckle HA, Morelli J. Holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency presenting as ichthyosis. Pediatr Dermatol 2006; 23: 142-4.
- Maguiness S, Guenther L. Kasabach Merritt syndrome. J Cut Med Surg 2002; 6: 335-9.
- Rodriguez V, Lee A, Witman PM, Anderson PA. Kasabach Merritt phenomenon: Case series and retrospective review of the mayo clinic experience. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2009; 31: 522-6.
- Edlich RF, Cross CL, Dahlstrom JJ, Long WB 3rd. Modern concepts of the diagnosis and treatment of purpura fulminans. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 2008; 27: 191-6.
- Marlar RA, Neumann A. Neonatal purpura fulminans due to homozygous protein C or protein S deficiencies. Semin Thromb Hemost 1990; 60: 299-309.
- Thapa R, Pramanik S, Dhar S, Kundu R. Neonatal Kawasaki disease with multiple coronary aneurysms and thrombocytopenia. Pediatr Dermatol 2007; 24: 662-4.
- Zeb A, Darmstadt GL. Sclerema neonatorum: a review of nomenclature, clinical presentation, histological features, differential diagnoses and management. J Perinatol 2008; 28: 453-60.
- Thong BY, Chan Y. Anaphylaxis during surgical and interventional procedures. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2004; 92: 619-28.
- Giovannitt J, Bennett CR. Assessment of allergy to local anesthetics. J Am Dent Assoc 1979; 98: 701-6.
- Briet S, Rueff F, Przybilla B. “Deep impact” contact allergy after subcutaneous injection of local anesthetics. Contact Dermatitis 2001; 45: 296-7.
- Curley RK, Macfarlane AW, King CM. Contact sensitivity to the amide anesthetics lidocaine, prilocaine, and mepivacaine: case report and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 1986; 122: 924-6.
- Chin TM, Fellner MJ. Allergic hypersensitivity to lidocaine hydrochloride. Int J Dermatol 1980; 19: 147-8.
- Chiu CY, Lin TY, Hsia SH, Lai SH, Wong KS. Systemic anaphylaxis following local lidocaine administration during a dental procedure. Ped Emerg Care 2004; 20: 178-80.
- Schechter JF, Wilkison RD, Carpio JD. Anaphylaxis following the use of bacitracin ointment. Arch Dermatol 1984; 120: 909-11.
- Phillips TJ, Rogers GS, Kanj LF. Bacitracin anaphylaxis. J Geriatr Dermatol 1995; 3: 83-5.
- Comaish JS, Cunliffe WJ. Absorption of drugs from various ulcers: a cause of anaphylaxis. Br J Clin Pract 1967; 21: 97.
- Daughters D, Zackheim H, Maibach H. Urticaria and anphylactoid reactions after topical application of mechlorethamine. Arch Dermatol 1973; 107: 429-30.
- Okano M, Nomura M, Hata S, Okada N, Sato K, Kitano Y, et al. Anaphylactic symptoms due to chlorhexidine gluconate. Arch Dermatol 1989; 125: 50-52.
- Pharm NH, Weiner JM, Reisner GS, Baldo BA. Anaphylaxis to chlorhexidine: case report: implication of immunoglobulin E antibodies and identifi cation of an allergenic determinant. Clin Exp Allergy 2000; 30: 1001
- Malde B, Ditto AM. Anaphylaxis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2004; 25: 52-3.
- Tang AW. A practical guide to anaphylaxis. Am Fam Physician 2003; 68: 1325-32.
- Martin JB, Ruskin J. Faintness, syncope, and seizures. In: Wilson JD, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al. editors. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1991: p 134-40.
- Bircher AJ, Messmer SL, Surber C, Rufli T. Delayed-type hypersensitivity to subcutaneous lidocaine with tolerance to articaine: confirmation by in vivo and in vitro tests. Contact Dermatitis 1996; 24: 387-9.
- Whalen JD. Delayed type hypersensitivity after subcutaneous administration of amide anesthetic. Arch Dermatol 1996; 132: 1256-7.
- Kaufman JM, Hale EK, Ahinoff RA, Cohen DE. Cutaneous lidocaine allergy confirmed by patch testing. J Drugs Dermatol 2002; 2: 192-4.
- Amsler E, Flahault A, Mathelier-Fusade P, Aractingi S. Evaluation of re-challenge in patients with suspected lidocaine allergy. Dermatology 2004; 208: 109
- Delgado Escueta AV, Wasterlain C, Treiman DM, Porter RJ. Current concepts in neurology: Management of status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 1982; 306: 1337-40.
- Selbst SM. Office management of status epilepticus. Pediatr Emerg Care 1991; 7: 106-9.
- Vaishampayan SS, Sharma YK, Das AL, Verma R. Emergencies in dermatology: Acute skin failure. MJAFI 2006; 62: 56-9.
- Inamadar AC, Palit A. Acute skin failure: Concept, causes, consequences and care. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2005; 71: 379-85.
- Modi N. Management of fluid balance in the very immature neonate. Arch Dis Chil Fetal Neonatal Ed 2004; 89: 108-11.