A Review: Severe Treatments, Drug and Vaccine studies for Coronavirus Disease (COVID 19)
Yıl 2022,
Sayı: 003, 21 - 38, 31.12.2022
Elif Esra Altuner
,
Muhammed Bekmezci
,
Rima Nour Elhouda Tiri
Ayşenur Aygün
,
Fatih Şen
Öz
In 2019, a new type of coronavirus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS CoV 2) (COVID-19), emerged in Wuhan, China, and this virus spread all over the world and seriously threatened human life. In this review article, the drug and vaccine treatment methods applied against the COVID-19 virus, which seriously threatens the whole world and takes human health to fatal cases, are examined in detail. In some of the applied drug and vaccine treatments and negative effects can be seen as well as positive effects. Due to this reason, the application of some treatment methods has been stopped. Drug and vaccine studies vary from country to country. For this reason, this study aimed to discuss the examples of treatment practices of countries and explain the treatment process.
Teşekkür
E.E.A, M.B., R.N.E.T., F.S. A.A. collected all review article contents. E.E.A. took care of the writing and layout of the publication.
Kaynakça
- [1] Fauci, A.S., Lane, H.C., Redfield, R.R., (2020), Covid-19- Navigating the Uncharted, New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 1268-1269.
- [2] Rastogi, Y.R., Sharma, A., Nagraik R., (2020), The novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV: Its evolution and transmission into humans causing global COVID-19 pandemic, International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 17:4381-4388.
- [3] Zhu, N., Zhang, D., Wang, W., (2020), A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019, New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 727-733.
- [4] Hodgson SH, Mansatta K., Mallett, G., (2021), What defines an efficacious COVID-19 vaccine? A review of the challenges assessing the clinical efficacy of vaccines .
- [5] Who, (2020), Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Global epidemiological situation.
- [6] Watson, O.J., Barnsley, G., Toor, J., (2022), Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling study, Lancet, Infect Dis, 22,1293-1302.
- [7] Tyrrell, D.A.J, Bynoe, M.L., (1966), Cultivation of Viruses from a High Proportion of Patients with Colds, Lancet, 76-7.
- [8] Pal, M., Berhanu, G., Desalegn, C., Kandi, V. (2020), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2): An Update. Cureus 12, e00221-18.
- [9] Qu, G., Li, X., Hu, L., Jiang, G., (2020), An Imperative Need for Research on the Role of Environmental Factors in Transmission of Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19), Environ Sci Technol, 54, 3730-3732.
- [10] Lai, C.C., Shih, T.P., Ko W.C., (2020), Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 55,105924.
- [11] Zhong, N.S., Zheng, B.J., Li, Y.M., (2003), Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People’s Republic of China, in February, 2003, Lancet, 362, 1353-1358.
- [12] Huang, C., Wang, Y., Li, X., (2020), Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, The Lancet, 395, 497-506.
- [13] Zaki, A.M., Van Boheemen, S., Bestebroer, T.M., (2012), Isolation of a Novel Coronavirus from a Man with Pneumonia in Saudi Arabia, New England Journal of Medicine, 367, 1814-1820.
- [14] Wu, D., Wu, T., Liu, Q., Yang, Z., (2020), The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak: What we know, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 94, 44-48.
- [15] Cui, J., Li, F., Shi. Z.L., (2019), Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses, Nat Rev Microbiol, 17, 181-192.
- [16] Gil, C., Ginex, T., Maestro, I., (2020), COVID-19: Drug Targets and Potential Treatments, J Med Chem, 63,12359-12386.
- [17] Stadler, K., Masignani, V., Eickmann, M., (2003), SARS — beginning to understand a new virus, Nat Rev Microbiol, 1, 209-218.
- [18] Zhou, Y., Yang, Y., Huang, J., (2019), Advances in MERS-CoV Vaccines and Therapeutics Based on the Receptor-Binding Domain, Viruses, 11,60.
- [19] Zamaro, A., Kulchitsky, V., (2020), Is COVID-19 a Systemic or Local Pathological Process? SSRN Electronic Journal.
- [20] Liu, C, von Brunn A, Zhu D., (2020), Cyclophilin A and CD147: novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of COVID-19, Med Drug Discov, 7, 100056.
- [21] Ulrich, H, Pillat MM., (2020), CD147 as a Target for COVID-19 Treatment: Suggested Effects of Azithromycin and Stem Cell Engagement, Stem Cell Rev Rep, 16, 434-440.
- [22] Leonardi, A., Rosani U., Brun P., (2020), Ocular Surface Expression of SARS-CoV-2 Receptors. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 28, 735-738.
- [23] Xu, Z., Shi, L., Wang Y., (2020), Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome, Lancet Respir, Med 8, 420-422.
- [24] Chan, J.F.W., Yuan, S., Kok, K.H., (2020), A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster, The Lancet, 395, 514-523.
- [25] Banerjee, A., Pasea, L., Harris, S., (2020), Estimating excess 1-year mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic according to underlying conditions and age: a population-based cohort study, The Lancet, 395, 1715-1725.
- [26] Smith, T., Bushek, J., Leclaire, A., Prosser, T., (2020), COVID-19 Drug Therapy.
- [27] Agostini, M.L., Andres, E.L., Sims, A.C., (2018), Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease, mBio., 9, 2.
- [28] Wang, M., Cao, R., Zhang, L., (2020), Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro, Cell Res, 30, 269-271.
- [29] Huang, L., Chen, Y., Xiao, J., (2020), Progress in the Research and Development of Anti-COVID-19 Drugs, Front Public Health, 8, 365.
- [30] Warren, T.K., Jordan, R., Lo, M.K., (2016), Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys, Nature, 531, 381-385.
- [31] Jean, S.S., Lee, P.I., Hsueh, P.R., (2020), Treatment options for COVID-19: The reality and challenges, Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection 53, 436-443.
- [32] Sheahan, T.P., Sims, A.C., Graham, R.L., (2017), Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses, Sci., Transl., Med., 9,369.
- [33] Grein, J., Ohmagari N, Shin D., (2020), Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19, New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 2327-2336.
- [34] Wang, Y., Fan, G., Salam, A., (2020), Comparative Effectiveness of Combined Favipiravir and Oseltamivir Therapy Versus Oseltamivir Monotherapy in Critically Ill Patients With Influenza Virus Infection, J., Infect., Dis., 221,1688-1698.
- [35] Cai, Q., Yang, M., Liu, D., (2020), Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study, Engineering 6,1192-1198.
- [36] Krishna, V.K., Prf, S.B., (2020), Comprehensive Review of Pharmacological Approaches in Treatment of COVID 19, International Journal of Futuristic Research in Health Sciences 1, 28-35.
- [37] Gao, J., Tian, Z., Yang, X., (2020), Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies, Biosci Trends, 14.
- [38] Yao, X., Ye., F., Zhang, M., (2020), In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Projection of Optimized Dosing Design of Hydroxychloroquine for the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), Clinical Infectious Diseases, 71,732-739.
- [39] Fox, R., (1996), Anti-malarial drugs: possible mechanisms of action in autoimmune disease and prospects for drug development., Lupus, 5, 4-10.
- [40] Cortegiani, A., Ingoglia, G., Ippolito, M., (2020), A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19, J., Crit., Care., 57, 279-283.
- [41] Fox, R.I., (1993), Mechanism of action of hydroxychloroquine as an antirheumatic drug, Semin Arthritis Rheum, 23, 82-91.
- [42] Uğuz, M., Eşkut. B., (2020), Covid 19 Enfeksiyon Tedavisi, Rewie Med Res Rep, 3, 17-31.
- [43] Henry, B.M., Lippi, G., Plebani, M., (2020), Laboratory abnormalities in children with novel coronavirus disease 2019, Clin Chem Lab Med, 58, 1135-1138.
- [44] Miller, A., Reandelar, M.J., Fasciglione K., (2020), Correlation between universal BCG vaccination policy and reduced mortality for COVID-19, MedRxiv, 2020.03.24.20042937.
- [45] T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı Halk Sağlığı Genel Müdürlüğü, (2020), Covid-19 (SARS-CoV Enfeksiyonu) Rehberi, Ankara, Türkiye.
- [46] Ben-Zvi, I., Kivity, S., Langevitz P., Shoenfeld, Y., (2012), Hydroxychloroquine: From malaria to autoimmunity, Clin Rev Allergy Immunol, 42, 145-153.
- [47] Savarino, A., Di Trani, L., Donatelli, I., (2006), New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine, Lancet, Infectious Diseases 6, 67-69.
- [48] Cvetkovic, R.S., Goa, K.L., (2003), Lopinavir/ritonavir: A review of its use in the management of HIV infection, Drugs, 63, 769-802.
- [49] Chu, C.M., Cheng, V.C.C., Hung, I.F.N., (2004), Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: Initial virological and clinical findings, Thorax, 59, 252-256.
- [50] Chen, F., Chan, K.H., Jiang, Y., (2004), In vitro susceptibility of 10 clinical isolates of SARS coronavirus to selected antiviral compounds, Journal of Clinical Virology, 31, 69-75.
- [51] Yao, T, Qian J, Zhu, W., (2020), A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus-A possible reference for coronavirus disease‐19 treatment option, J., Med., Virol, 92, 556-563.
- [52] Chen, L., Xiong, J., Bao, L., Shi, Y., (2020), Convalescent plasma as a potential therapy for COVID-19, Lancet, Infect Dis, 20, 398-400.
- [53] Barrett, C.D., Moore, H.B., Yaffe, M.B., Moore, E.E., (2020), ISTH interim guidance on recognition and management of coagulopathy in COVID‐19: A comment, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 18, 2060-2063.
- [54] Tritschler, T., Mathieu, M.E., Skeith, L., (2020), Anticoagulant interventions in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: A scoping review of randomized controlled trials and call for international collaboration, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 18, 2958-2967.
- [55] Tleyjeh, I.M., Kashour, Z., Damlaj, M., (2020), Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in COVID-19 patients: a living systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 27, 215-227.
- [56] Lin, L., Lu, L., Cao, W., Li, T., (2020), Hypothesis for potential pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection–a review of immune changes in patients with viral pneumonia. Emerg Microbes Infect 9, 727-732.
- [57] American Society of Hematology (ASH)., (2020), COVID-19 and Pulmonary Embolism- Hematology.org.
- [58] CPC., (2020), Clinical Pathology of Critical Patient with Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia (COVID-19) [v4] | Preprints.
- [59] Fox, S.E., Akmatbekov, A., Harbert, J.L., (2020), Pulmonary and cardiac pathology in African American patients with COVID-19: an autopsy series from New Orleans, Lancet, Respir Med 8, 681-686.
- [60] Beigelman A., Mikols CL., Gunsten SP., (2010), Azithromycin attenuates airway inflammation in a mouse model of viral bronchiolitis, Respir Res, 11, 90.
- [61] Amsden, G.W., (2005), Anti-inflammatory effects of macrolides—an underappreciated benefit in the treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infections and chronic inflammatory pulmonary conditions?, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 55, 10-21.
- [62] Kanoh, S., Rubin, B.K., (2010), Mechanisms of action and clinical application of macrolides as immunomodulatory medications, Clin Microbiol Rev, 23, 590-615.
- [63] Beigelman, A., Mikols, C.L., Gunsten, S.P., (2010), Azithromycin attenuates airway inflammation in a mouse model of viral bronchiolitis, Respir Res, 11, 90.
- [64] Zarogoulidis, P., Papanas, N., Kioumis, I., (2012), Macrolides: From in vitro anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties to clinical practice in respiratory diseases, Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 68,479–503.
- [65] Pani, A., Lauriola, M., Romandini, A., Scaglione, F., (2020), Macrolides and viral infections: focus on azithromycin in COVID-19 pathology. Int J Antimicrob Agents 56, 106053.
- [66] Min, J.Y., Jang, Y.J., (2012), Macrolide therapy in respiratory viral infections. Mediators Inflamm 2012.
- [67] Franzetti, M., Pozzetti, U., Carugati, M., (2020), Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist anakinra in association with remdesivir in severe coronavirus disease 2019: A case report, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 97, 215-218.
- [68] Hajj Hussein, I., Chams, N., Chams, S., (2015), Vaccines Through Centuries: Major Cornerstones of Global Health, Front Public Health, 3.
- [69] Kaur, S.P., Gupta, V., (2020), COVID-19 Vaccine: A comprehensive status report, Virus Res 288, 198114.
- [70] Tatsis, N., Ertl, H.C.J., (2004), Adenoviruses as vaccine vectors. Molecular Therapy 10, 616-629.
- [71] Smith, J., Lipsitch, M., Almond, J.W., (2011), Vaccine production, distribution, access, and uptake, The Lancet, 378, 428-438.
- [72] Mason, H.S., Arntzen, C.J., (1995), Transgenic plants as vaccine production systems, Trends Biotechnol, 13, 388-392.
- [73] Genzel, Y., Reichl, U., (2007), Vaccine Production. Humana Press, pp 457-473.
- [74] Cañizares, M.C., Nicholson, L., Lomonossoff, G.P., (2005), Use of viral vectors for vaccine production in plants. Immunol Cell Biol 83, 263-270.
- [75] Vetter, V., Denizer, G., Friedland, L.R., (2018), Understanding modern-day vaccines: what you need to know, Ann Med., 50, 110-120.
- [76] Pınar Kahraman, E., Altındis, M., (2020), COVID-19 Aşıları; Pandemide Sona Doğru? COVID 19 Vaccines; Towards e end of e Pandemic?.
- [77] Büyüktanır, Ö., (2010), Günümüzde Biyoteknolojik Bakteriyel Aşılar, Atatürk Üniversitesi Vet Bil Derg., 5, 97–105.
- [78] Fındık, A., Sezener M.G., Çiftci, A., Tarihi, G., (2018), Rekombinant DNA Teknolojisinin Veteriner Aşılarda Kullanımı The Use of Recombinant DNA Technologies in Veterinary Vaccines. Etlik Vet Mikrobiyol Derg 29, 162–166.
- [79] WHO., (2020), Draft landscape and tracker of COVID-19 candidate vaccines, In: WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines. Accessed 29 Mar 2021.
- [80] Owid., (2021), Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations- Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations, Accessed 23 Sep 2022.
- [81] Okyay, P., (2020), Covid-19 Pandemisi Altıncı Ay Değerlendirme Raporu.
- [82] Shervani, Z., Khan, I., Khan, T., Qazi, U.Y., (2020), COVID-19 Vaccine, Adv Infect Dis, 10, 195-210.
- [83] Palacios, R., Patiño, E.G., De Oliveira Piorelli, R., (2020), Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Phase III Clinical Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of treating Healthcare Professionals with the Adsorbed COVID-19 (Inactivated) Vaccine Manufactured by Sinovac – Profiscow: A structured summary of a . Trials 21, 1-3.
- [84] Lloyd-Sherlock, P., Muljono P., Ebrahim S., (2021), Ageism in Indonesia’s national covid-19 vaccination programme, The BMJ 372.
- [85] Kim, JH, Marks F., Clemens JD., (2021), Looking beyond COVID-19 vaccine phase 3 trials, Nat Med, 27, 205-211.
- [86] Bloom, BR., Nowak GJ., Orenstein W., (2020), “When Will We Have a Vaccine?”- Understanding Questions and Answers about Covid-19 Vaccination, New England Journal of Medicine, 383, 2202-2204.
- [87] Oliver, SE., Gargano JW., Marin M., (2020), The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices’ Interim Recommendation for Use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine — United States, December 2020, MMWR, Morb Mortal, Wkly Rep 69,1922-1924.
- [88] FSFHPAV., (2021), Fact Sheet For Healthcare Provıders Admınısterıng Vaccıne, (Vaccınatıon Providers).
- [89] Murphy, A., Mbau L., McKee, M., (2021), Can we do for other essential medicines what we are doing for the COVID-19 vaccine? BMJ, Glob Health, 6, 5158.
- [90] Tanne, J.H., (2020), Covid-19: FDA panel votes to approve Pfizer BioNTech vaccine, BMJ, 371, m4799.
- [91] Shimabukuro, T., (2021)., Allergic Reactions Including Anaphylaxis After Receipt of the First Dose of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine - United States, December 14-23, 2020, MMWR, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 70, 46-51.
- [92] Mahase, E., (2020), Covid-19: UK approves Pfizer and BioNTech vaccine with rollout due to start next week, The BMJ, 371.
- [93] Livingston, E.H., (2021), Necessity of 2 Doses of the Pfizer and Moderna COVID-19 Vaccines, JAMA, 325, 898–898.
- [94] Baden, L.R., El Sahly, H.M., Essink, B., (2021), Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine, New England, Journal of Medicine, 384,403-416.
- [95] Oliver, S.E., Gargano, J.W., Marin, M., (2021), The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices’ Interim Recommendation for Use of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine - United States, December 2020, MMWR, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 69, 1653-1656.
- [96] Zhang, R., (2020), Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee December 17, 2020 Meeting Presentation-FDA Review of Efficacy and Safety of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine Emergency Use Authorization Request.
- [97] Tom, S., (2021), Allergic Reactions Including Anaphylaxis After Receipt of the First Dose of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine - United States, December 21, 2020-January 10, 2021, MMWR Morb Mortal, Wkly Rep, 70, 125-129.
- [98] Ramasamy, MN, Minassian, AM., Ewer KJ., (2020), Safety and immunogenicity of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine administered in a prime-boost regimen in young and old adults (COV002): a single-blind, randomised, controlled, phase 2/3 trial, The Lancet, 396:1979-1993.
- [99] Baraniuk, C., (2021), Covid-19: What do we know about Sputnik V and other Russian vaccines? , BMJ 372:n743.
- [100] Jones, I., Roy, P., (2021), Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine candidate appears safe and effective, The Lancet, 397, 642-643.
- [101] Logunov, D.Y., Dolzhikova, I.V., Shcheblyakov, D.V., (2021), Safety and efficacy of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine: an interim analysis of a randomised controlled phase 3 trial in Russia, The Lancet, 397, 671-681.
- [102] COVID-19 Vaccines | HIV, ID., and Global Medicine, https://hividgm.ucsf.edu/covid-19-vaccines, Accessed 11 Sep 2022.
A Review: Severe Treatments, Drug and Vaccine studies for Coronavirus Disease (COVID 19)
Yıl 2022,
Sayı: 003, 21 - 38, 31.12.2022
Elif Esra Altuner
,
Muhammed Bekmezci
,
Rima Nour Elhouda Tiri
Ayşenur Aygün
,
Fatih Şen
Öz
In 2019, a new type of coronavirus, SARS CoV 2, emerged in Wuhan, China, and this virus spread all over the world, seriously threatening human life. In this review article, we have compiled international drug treatments and studies, vaccine treatments and studies, and various studies against COVID 19 disease. Some products are still in the working phase. However, some drugs are very effective against the COVID 19 virus. Besides, the world has started vaccine treatment. Medicine and vaccine studies vary from country to country. For this reason, in this study, examples of treatment practices of countries are given and treatment processes are explained.
Kaynakça
- [1] Fauci, A.S., Lane, H.C., Redfield, R.R., (2020), Covid-19- Navigating the Uncharted, New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 1268-1269.
- [2] Rastogi, Y.R., Sharma, A., Nagraik R., (2020), The novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV: Its evolution and transmission into humans causing global COVID-19 pandemic, International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 17:4381-4388.
- [3] Zhu, N., Zhang, D., Wang, W., (2020), A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019, New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 727-733.
- [4] Hodgson SH, Mansatta K., Mallett, G., (2021), What defines an efficacious COVID-19 vaccine? A review of the challenges assessing the clinical efficacy of vaccines .
- [5] Who, (2020), Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Global epidemiological situation.
- [6] Watson, O.J., Barnsley, G., Toor, J., (2022), Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling study, Lancet, Infect Dis, 22,1293-1302.
- [7] Tyrrell, D.A.J, Bynoe, M.L., (1966), Cultivation of Viruses from a High Proportion of Patients with Colds, Lancet, 76-7.
- [8] Pal, M., Berhanu, G., Desalegn, C., Kandi, V. (2020), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2): An Update. Cureus 12, e00221-18.
- [9] Qu, G., Li, X., Hu, L., Jiang, G., (2020), An Imperative Need for Research on the Role of Environmental Factors in Transmission of Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19), Environ Sci Technol, 54, 3730-3732.
- [10] Lai, C.C., Shih, T.P., Ko W.C., (2020), Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 55,105924.
- [11] Zhong, N.S., Zheng, B.J., Li, Y.M., (2003), Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People’s Republic of China, in February, 2003, Lancet, 362, 1353-1358.
- [12] Huang, C., Wang, Y., Li, X., (2020), Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, The Lancet, 395, 497-506.
- [13] Zaki, A.M., Van Boheemen, S., Bestebroer, T.M., (2012), Isolation of a Novel Coronavirus from a Man with Pneumonia in Saudi Arabia, New England Journal of Medicine, 367, 1814-1820.
- [14] Wu, D., Wu, T., Liu, Q., Yang, Z., (2020), The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak: What we know, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 94, 44-48.
- [15] Cui, J., Li, F., Shi. Z.L., (2019), Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses, Nat Rev Microbiol, 17, 181-192.
- [16] Gil, C., Ginex, T., Maestro, I., (2020), COVID-19: Drug Targets and Potential Treatments, J Med Chem, 63,12359-12386.
- [17] Stadler, K., Masignani, V., Eickmann, M., (2003), SARS — beginning to understand a new virus, Nat Rev Microbiol, 1, 209-218.
- [18] Zhou, Y., Yang, Y., Huang, J., (2019), Advances in MERS-CoV Vaccines and Therapeutics Based on the Receptor-Binding Domain, Viruses, 11,60.
- [19] Zamaro, A., Kulchitsky, V., (2020), Is COVID-19 a Systemic or Local Pathological Process? SSRN Electronic Journal.
- [20] Liu, C, von Brunn A, Zhu D., (2020), Cyclophilin A and CD147: novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of COVID-19, Med Drug Discov, 7, 100056.
- [21] Ulrich, H, Pillat MM., (2020), CD147 as a Target for COVID-19 Treatment: Suggested Effects of Azithromycin and Stem Cell Engagement, Stem Cell Rev Rep, 16, 434-440.
- [22] Leonardi, A., Rosani U., Brun P., (2020), Ocular Surface Expression of SARS-CoV-2 Receptors. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 28, 735-738.
- [23] Xu, Z., Shi, L., Wang Y., (2020), Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome, Lancet Respir, Med 8, 420-422.
- [24] Chan, J.F.W., Yuan, S., Kok, K.H., (2020), A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster, The Lancet, 395, 514-523.
- [25] Banerjee, A., Pasea, L., Harris, S., (2020), Estimating excess 1-year mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic according to underlying conditions and age: a population-based cohort study, The Lancet, 395, 1715-1725.
- [26] Smith, T., Bushek, J., Leclaire, A., Prosser, T., (2020), COVID-19 Drug Therapy.
- [27] Agostini, M.L., Andres, E.L., Sims, A.C., (2018), Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease, mBio., 9, 2.
- [28] Wang, M., Cao, R., Zhang, L., (2020), Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro, Cell Res, 30, 269-271.
- [29] Huang, L., Chen, Y., Xiao, J., (2020), Progress in the Research and Development of Anti-COVID-19 Drugs, Front Public Health, 8, 365.
- [30] Warren, T.K., Jordan, R., Lo, M.K., (2016), Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys, Nature, 531, 381-385.
- [31] Jean, S.S., Lee, P.I., Hsueh, P.R., (2020), Treatment options for COVID-19: The reality and challenges, Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection 53, 436-443.
- [32] Sheahan, T.P., Sims, A.C., Graham, R.L., (2017), Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses, Sci., Transl., Med., 9,369.
- [33] Grein, J., Ohmagari N, Shin D., (2020), Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19, New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 2327-2336.
- [34] Wang, Y., Fan, G., Salam, A., (2020), Comparative Effectiveness of Combined Favipiravir and Oseltamivir Therapy Versus Oseltamivir Monotherapy in Critically Ill Patients With Influenza Virus Infection, J., Infect., Dis., 221,1688-1698.
- [35] Cai, Q., Yang, M., Liu, D., (2020), Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study, Engineering 6,1192-1198.
- [36] Krishna, V.K., Prf, S.B., (2020), Comprehensive Review of Pharmacological Approaches in Treatment of COVID 19, International Journal of Futuristic Research in Health Sciences 1, 28-35.
- [37] Gao, J., Tian, Z., Yang, X., (2020), Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies, Biosci Trends, 14.
- [38] Yao, X., Ye., F., Zhang, M., (2020), In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Projection of Optimized Dosing Design of Hydroxychloroquine for the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), Clinical Infectious Diseases, 71,732-739.
- [39] Fox, R., (1996), Anti-malarial drugs: possible mechanisms of action in autoimmune disease and prospects for drug development., Lupus, 5, 4-10.
- [40] Cortegiani, A., Ingoglia, G., Ippolito, M., (2020), A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19, J., Crit., Care., 57, 279-283.
- [41] Fox, R.I., (1993), Mechanism of action of hydroxychloroquine as an antirheumatic drug, Semin Arthritis Rheum, 23, 82-91.
- [42] Uğuz, M., Eşkut. B., (2020), Covid 19 Enfeksiyon Tedavisi, Rewie Med Res Rep, 3, 17-31.
- [43] Henry, B.M., Lippi, G., Plebani, M., (2020), Laboratory abnormalities in children with novel coronavirus disease 2019, Clin Chem Lab Med, 58, 1135-1138.
- [44] Miller, A., Reandelar, M.J., Fasciglione K., (2020), Correlation between universal BCG vaccination policy and reduced mortality for COVID-19, MedRxiv, 2020.03.24.20042937.
- [45] T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı Halk Sağlığı Genel Müdürlüğü, (2020), Covid-19 (SARS-CoV Enfeksiyonu) Rehberi, Ankara, Türkiye.
- [46] Ben-Zvi, I., Kivity, S., Langevitz P., Shoenfeld, Y., (2012), Hydroxychloroquine: From malaria to autoimmunity, Clin Rev Allergy Immunol, 42, 145-153.
- [47] Savarino, A., Di Trani, L., Donatelli, I., (2006), New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine, Lancet, Infectious Diseases 6, 67-69.
- [48] Cvetkovic, R.S., Goa, K.L., (2003), Lopinavir/ritonavir: A review of its use in the management of HIV infection, Drugs, 63, 769-802.
- [49] Chu, C.M., Cheng, V.C.C., Hung, I.F.N., (2004), Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: Initial virological and clinical findings, Thorax, 59, 252-256.
- [50] Chen, F., Chan, K.H., Jiang, Y., (2004), In vitro susceptibility of 10 clinical isolates of SARS coronavirus to selected antiviral compounds, Journal of Clinical Virology, 31, 69-75.
- [51] Yao, T, Qian J, Zhu, W., (2020), A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus-A possible reference for coronavirus disease‐19 treatment option, J., Med., Virol, 92, 556-563.
- [52] Chen, L., Xiong, J., Bao, L., Shi, Y., (2020), Convalescent plasma as a potential therapy for COVID-19, Lancet, Infect Dis, 20, 398-400.
- [53] Barrett, C.D., Moore, H.B., Yaffe, M.B., Moore, E.E., (2020), ISTH interim guidance on recognition and management of coagulopathy in COVID‐19: A comment, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 18, 2060-2063.
- [54] Tritschler, T., Mathieu, M.E., Skeith, L., (2020), Anticoagulant interventions in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: A scoping review of randomized controlled trials and call for international collaboration, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 18, 2958-2967.
- [55] Tleyjeh, I.M., Kashour, Z., Damlaj, M., (2020), Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in COVID-19 patients: a living systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 27, 215-227.
- [56] Lin, L., Lu, L., Cao, W., Li, T., (2020), Hypothesis for potential pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection–a review of immune changes in patients with viral pneumonia. Emerg Microbes Infect 9, 727-732.
- [57] American Society of Hematology (ASH)., (2020), COVID-19 and Pulmonary Embolism- Hematology.org.
- [58] CPC., (2020), Clinical Pathology of Critical Patient with Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia (COVID-19) [v4] | Preprints.
- [59] Fox, S.E., Akmatbekov, A., Harbert, J.L., (2020), Pulmonary and cardiac pathology in African American patients with COVID-19: an autopsy series from New Orleans, Lancet, Respir Med 8, 681-686.
- [60] Beigelman A., Mikols CL., Gunsten SP., (2010), Azithromycin attenuates airway inflammation in a mouse model of viral bronchiolitis, Respir Res, 11, 90.
- [61] Amsden, G.W., (2005), Anti-inflammatory effects of macrolides—an underappreciated benefit in the treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infections and chronic inflammatory pulmonary conditions?, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 55, 10-21.
- [62] Kanoh, S., Rubin, B.K., (2010), Mechanisms of action and clinical application of macrolides as immunomodulatory medications, Clin Microbiol Rev, 23, 590-615.
- [63] Beigelman, A., Mikols, C.L., Gunsten, S.P., (2010), Azithromycin attenuates airway inflammation in a mouse model of viral bronchiolitis, Respir Res, 11, 90.
- [64] Zarogoulidis, P., Papanas, N., Kioumis, I., (2012), Macrolides: From in vitro anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties to clinical practice in respiratory diseases, Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 68,479–503.
- [65] Pani, A., Lauriola, M., Romandini, A., Scaglione, F., (2020), Macrolides and viral infections: focus on azithromycin in COVID-19 pathology. Int J Antimicrob Agents 56, 106053.
- [66] Min, J.Y., Jang, Y.J., (2012), Macrolide therapy in respiratory viral infections. Mediators Inflamm 2012.
- [67] Franzetti, M., Pozzetti, U., Carugati, M., (2020), Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist anakinra in association with remdesivir in severe coronavirus disease 2019: A case report, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 97, 215-218.
- [68] Hajj Hussein, I., Chams, N., Chams, S., (2015), Vaccines Through Centuries: Major Cornerstones of Global Health, Front Public Health, 3.
- [69] Kaur, S.P., Gupta, V., (2020), COVID-19 Vaccine: A comprehensive status report, Virus Res 288, 198114.
- [70] Tatsis, N., Ertl, H.C.J., (2004), Adenoviruses as vaccine vectors. Molecular Therapy 10, 616-629.
- [71] Smith, J., Lipsitch, M., Almond, J.W., (2011), Vaccine production, distribution, access, and uptake, The Lancet, 378, 428-438.
- [72] Mason, H.S., Arntzen, C.J., (1995), Transgenic plants as vaccine production systems, Trends Biotechnol, 13, 388-392.
- [73] Genzel, Y., Reichl, U., (2007), Vaccine Production. Humana Press, pp 457-473.
- [74] Cañizares, M.C., Nicholson, L., Lomonossoff, G.P., (2005), Use of viral vectors for vaccine production in plants. Immunol Cell Biol 83, 263-270.
- [75] Vetter, V., Denizer, G., Friedland, L.R., (2018), Understanding modern-day vaccines: what you need to know, Ann Med., 50, 110-120.
- [76] Pınar Kahraman, E., Altındis, M., (2020), COVID-19 Aşıları; Pandemide Sona Doğru? COVID 19 Vaccines; Towards e end of e Pandemic?.
- [77] Büyüktanır, Ö., (2010), Günümüzde Biyoteknolojik Bakteriyel Aşılar, Atatürk Üniversitesi Vet Bil Derg., 5, 97–105.
- [78] Fındık, A., Sezener M.G., Çiftci, A., Tarihi, G., (2018), Rekombinant DNA Teknolojisinin Veteriner Aşılarda Kullanımı The Use of Recombinant DNA Technologies in Veterinary Vaccines. Etlik Vet Mikrobiyol Derg 29, 162–166.
- [79] WHO., (2020), Draft landscape and tracker of COVID-19 candidate vaccines, In: WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines. Accessed 29 Mar 2021.
- [80] Owid., (2021), Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations- Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations, Accessed 23 Sep 2022.
- [81] Okyay, P., (2020), Covid-19 Pandemisi Altıncı Ay Değerlendirme Raporu.
- [82] Shervani, Z., Khan, I., Khan, T., Qazi, U.Y., (2020), COVID-19 Vaccine, Adv Infect Dis, 10, 195-210.
- [83] Palacios, R., Patiño, E.G., De Oliveira Piorelli, R., (2020), Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Phase III Clinical Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of treating Healthcare Professionals with the Adsorbed COVID-19 (Inactivated) Vaccine Manufactured by Sinovac – Profiscow: A structured summary of a . Trials 21, 1-3.
- [84] Lloyd-Sherlock, P., Muljono P., Ebrahim S., (2021), Ageism in Indonesia’s national covid-19 vaccination programme, The BMJ 372.
- [85] Kim, JH, Marks F., Clemens JD., (2021), Looking beyond COVID-19 vaccine phase 3 trials, Nat Med, 27, 205-211.
- [86] Bloom, BR., Nowak GJ., Orenstein W., (2020), “When Will We Have a Vaccine?”- Understanding Questions and Answers about Covid-19 Vaccination, New England Journal of Medicine, 383, 2202-2204.
- [87] Oliver, SE., Gargano JW., Marin M., (2020), The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices’ Interim Recommendation for Use of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine — United States, December 2020, MMWR, Morb Mortal, Wkly Rep 69,1922-1924.
- [88] FSFHPAV., (2021), Fact Sheet For Healthcare Provıders Admınısterıng Vaccıne, (Vaccınatıon Providers).
- [89] Murphy, A., Mbau L., McKee, M., (2021), Can we do for other essential medicines what we are doing for the COVID-19 vaccine? BMJ, Glob Health, 6, 5158.
- [90] Tanne, J.H., (2020), Covid-19: FDA panel votes to approve Pfizer BioNTech vaccine, BMJ, 371, m4799.
- [91] Shimabukuro, T., (2021)., Allergic Reactions Including Anaphylaxis After Receipt of the First Dose of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine - United States, December 14-23, 2020, MMWR, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 70, 46-51.
- [92] Mahase, E., (2020), Covid-19: UK approves Pfizer and BioNTech vaccine with rollout due to start next week, The BMJ, 371.
- [93] Livingston, E.H., (2021), Necessity of 2 Doses of the Pfizer and Moderna COVID-19 Vaccines, JAMA, 325, 898–898.
- [94] Baden, L.R., El Sahly, H.M., Essink, B., (2021), Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine, New England, Journal of Medicine, 384,403-416.
- [95] Oliver, S.E., Gargano, J.W., Marin, M., (2021), The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices’ Interim Recommendation for Use of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine - United States, December 2020, MMWR, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 69, 1653-1656.
- [96] Zhang, R., (2020), Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee December 17, 2020 Meeting Presentation-FDA Review of Efficacy and Safety of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine Emergency Use Authorization Request.
- [97] Tom, S., (2021), Allergic Reactions Including Anaphylaxis After Receipt of the First Dose of Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine - United States, December 21, 2020-January 10, 2021, MMWR Morb Mortal, Wkly Rep, 70, 125-129.
- [98] Ramasamy, MN, Minassian, AM., Ewer KJ., (2020), Safety and immunogenicity of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine administered in a prime-boost regimen in young and old adults (COV002): a single-blind, randomised, controlled, phase 2/3 trial, The Lancet, 396:1979-1993.
- [99] Baraniuk, C., (2021), Covid-19: What do we know about Sputnik V and other Russian vaccines? , BMJ 372:n743.
- [100] Jones, I., Roy, P., (2021), Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine candidate appears safe and effective, The Lancet, 397, 642-643.
- [101] Logunov, D.Y., Dolzhikova, I.V., Shcheblyakov, D.V., (2021), Safety and efficacy of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine: an interim analysis of a randomised controlled phase 3 trial in Russia, The Lancet, 397, 671-681.
- [102] COVID-19 Vaccines | HIV, ID., and Global Medicine, https://hividgm.ucsf.edu/covid-19-vaccines, Accessed 11 Sep 2022.