Women’s Fear of Crime and the Gender Paradox: A Conceptual Review Based on Vulnerability Theory

Öz

Fear of crime is a complex, multilayered social phenomenon that can persist independently of fluctuations in official crime statistics. It encompasses not only people’s subjective assessments of their potential victimization but also the emotional responses those assessments trigger such as anxiety and insecurityand behavioral strategies adopted to cope with them. Persisting over time at the psychosocial level, this fear has been linked to a range of adverse outcomes, including depression, reduced physical functioning, heightened social isolation, and restrictions on everyday mobility. One of the most robust findings in the literature is that women report higher levels of fear of crime than men. Because this disparity emerges despite women’s lower victimization rates for many offence types, it has been labeled the gender–fear paradox. The present study examines that paradox through the lens of vulnerability theory, which posits that fear of crime is shaped along three interrelated dimensions: perceived likelihood of victimization, perceived loss of control over the crime event, and anticipated severity of its consequences. Women’s physical, social, and environmental vulnerabilities along with both the shadow of sexual assault and the gendered socialization processes that shape threat perceptions are analyzed in terms of how they reinforce fear across these three dimensions. By adopting this framework, the study aims to elucidate the multidimensional nature of women’s fear of crime and to contribute both to theoretical scholarship and to the development of gender-sensitive public-safety policies.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Fear of crime
• Gender-fear paradox
• Vulnerability theory
• Shadow of sexual assault
• Gender socialization.

Kadınların Suç Korkusu ve Cinsiyet Paradoksu: Savunmasızlık Teorisi Temelli Kavramsal Bir İnceleme

Öz

Suç korkusu, resmi suç istatistiklerindeki dalgalanmalara doğrudan bağlı olmayan, süreklilik gösterebilen ve toplumsal düzeyde çok katmanlı biçimde deneyimlenen bir olgudur. Bu korku yalnızca bireylerin potansiyel mağduriyetlerine ilişkin öznel değerlendirmelerini değil, aynı zamanda bu değerlendirmelerin tetiklediği duygusal tepkileri (örneğin kaygı, güvensizlik) ve bunlara karşı geliştirilen davranışsal stratejileri de kapsamaktadır. Zaman içinde psikososyal olarak azalmayan bu korkunun, bireylerin yaşam kalitesini etkileyen çeşitli sonuçlarla ilişkilendiği bilinmektedir. Bunlar arasında depresyon, fiziksel işlevselliğin düşmesi, sosyal izolasyonun artması ve günlük hareketliliğin kısıtlanması gibi etkiler yer almaktadır. Suç korkusu literatüründe en istikrarlı bulgulardan biri, kadınların erkeklere kıyasla daha yüksek düzeyde suç korkusu bildirmesidir. Bu durum, kadınların birçok suç türünde mağduriyet oranlarının erkeklerden daha düşük olmasına rağmen ortaya çıktığından, literatürde cinsiyet paradoksu olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu çalışma, söz konusu paradoksu savunmasızlık teorisi çerçevesinde ele almayı amaçlamaktadır. Teori, suç korkusunun üç temel boyutta şekillendiğini ileri sürmektedir: bireyin suça maruz kalma olasılığına ilişkin algısı, suç eylemi üzerinde kontrol kaybı hissi ve olayın doğuracağı olası sonuçların ciddiyeti. Kadınların fiziksel, toplumsal ve çevresel savunmasızlıklarının yanı sıra, cinsel şiddet tehdidinin gündelik yaşam üzerindeki gölge etkisi ile toplumsal cinsiyetin öğrenilme süreçleri bu üç boyutta suç korkusunu nasıl pekiştirdiği bağlamında incelenecektir. Bu çerçevede çalışmanın temel amacı, kadınların suç korkusunun çok boyutlu doğasını kavramsal olarak anlamak ve hem kuramsal çalışmalara hem de toplumsal cinsiyet duyarlı güvenlik politikalarının geliştirilmesine katkı sunmaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Suç korkusu
• Cinsiyet paradoksu
• Savunmasızlık teorisi
• Cinsel saldırı gölgesi
• Toplumsal cinsiyet.

Kaynakça

1. Altheide, D. L. (2002). Creating fear: News and the construction of crisis. Aldine de Gruyter.
2. Brandt, L., Liu, S., Heim, C., & Heinz, A. (2022). The effects of social isolation stress and discrimination on mental health. Translational Psychiatry, 12, Article 398. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-022-02178-4
3. Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. Simon & Schuster.
4. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2023). Criminal Victimization, 2022 (NCJ 307089). U.S. Department of Justice.
5. Carcach, C., & Mukherjee, S. (1999, November). Women’s fear of violence in the community (Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice No. 135). Australian Institute of Criminology. https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/tandi135.pdf
6. Çelik, F., & Mirza, E. (2020). Öğrencilerin Selçuk Üniversitesi, Alaeddin Keykubad Kampüsü’ne yönelik suç korkusu. İnönü Üniversitesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 10(22), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.16950/iujad.720049
7. Deluca, E. M., Carrasquillo, S. L., & Clark, R. (2021). Changes in the fear of crime in the United States by gender and by race. Sociology Between the Gaps: Forgotten and Neglected Topics, 6(1), Article 8. https://digitalcommons.providence.edu/sbg/vol6/iss1/8
8. Demirbaş, M. (2023). Türkiye’de suç korkusunun analizi: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti vatandaşları ve Suriyeliler arasında suç korkusu. Adalet Yayınevi.

9. Erkan, N. Ç., & Topçu, B. S. (2021). Gender-based differences in fear of crime in public spaces: An investigation of a safe district in Istanbul. Urbaniizziv, 32(2), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.5379/urbani-izziv-en-2021-32-02-02
10. Ferraro, K. F. (1996). Women’s fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault. Social Forces, 75(2), 667–690. https://doi.org/10.2307/2580729
11. Ferraro, K. F., & LaGrange, R. L. (1987). The measurement of fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 57(1), 70–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb01181.x
12. Fisher, B. S., & Sloan, J. J. (2003). Unraveling the fear of victimization among college women: Is the “shadow of sexual assault” hypothesis supported? Justice Quarterly, 20(3), 633–659. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820300095641
13. Fishman, G., & Mesch, G. S. (1996). Fear of crime in Israel: A multidimensional approach. Social Science Quarterly, 77(1), 76–89. https://cris.haifa.ac.il/en/publications/fear-of-crime-in-israel-a-multidimensional-approach
14. Furstenberg, F. F. (1971). Public reaction to crime in the streets. American Scholar, 40(4), 601–610.
15. Garofalo, J. (1981). The fear of crime: Causes and consequences. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 72(2), 839–857.
16. Gilson, L. L., & Goldberg, C. B. (2015). Editors’ comment: So, what is a conceptual paper?. Group & Organization Management, 40(2), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115576425
17. Hale, C. (1996). Fear of crime: A review of the literature. International Review of Victimology, 4(2), 79–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/026975809600400201
18. Heath, L., & Gilbert, K. (1996). Mass media and fear of crime. American Behavioral Scientist, 39(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764296039004003
19. Hirtenlehner, H., & Farrall, S. (2014). Is the “shadow of sexual assault” responsible for women’s higher fear of burglary? British Journal of Criminology, 54(6), 1167–1186. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azu056
20. Hirtenlehner, H., Farrall, S., & Groß, E. (2023). Are women of all age groups equally affected by the shadow of sexual assault? Evidence from Germany. European Journal of Criminology, 20(3), 834–855. https://doi. org/10.1177/14773708231156330
21. Jackson, J. (2009). A psychological perspective on vulnerability in the fear of crime. Psychology, Crime&Law, 15(4), 365-390.
22. Jackson, J., & Gray, E. (2010). Functional fear and public insecurities about crime. British Journal of Criminology, 50(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azp059
23. Johansson, S., & Haandrikman, K. (2023). Gendered fear of crime in the urban context: A comparative multilevel study of women’s and men’s fear of crime. Journal of Urban Affairs, 45(7), 1238–1264. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2021.1923372
24. Junger, M. (1987). Women’s experiences of sexual harassment: Some implications for their fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 27(4), 358–383. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/womensexperiences-sexual-harassment-some-implications-their-fear
25. Keel, C., Wickes, R., Lee, M., & Jackson, J. (2025). Vulnerability and place: A test of the psychology of perceived vulnerability for women and men. Current Issues in Criminal Justice.Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2025.2489229
26. Killias, M. (1990). Vulnerability: Towards a better understanding of a key variable in the genesis of fear of crime. Violence and Victims, 5(2), 97-108.
27. Kondo, M. C., Clougherty, J. E., Hohl, B. C., & Branas, C. C. (2021). Gender differences in impacts of place-based neighborhood greening interventions on fear of violence based on a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Urban Health, 98(6), 812–821.
28. Lane, J., Gover, A. R., &Dahod, S. (2009). Fear of violent crime among men and women on campus: The impact of perceived risk and fear of sexual assault. Violence and Victims, 24(2), 172–192. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.24.2.172
29. Lorenc, T., Petticrew, M., Whitehead, M., Neary, D., Clayton, S., Wright, K., et al. (2013). Environmental interventions to reduce fear of crime: Systematic review of effectiveness. Systematic Reviews, 2, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-2-30
30. Macassa, G., McGrath, C., Wijk, K., Rashid, M., Hiswåls, A.-S., & Soares, J. (2023). The association between fear of crime, educational attainment, and health. Epidemiologia, 4(2), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.3390/ epidemiologia4020016
31. Madriz, E. (1997). Images of criminals and victims: A study on women’s fear and social control. Gender& Society, 11(3), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124397011003003
32. Maher, C. A., Pyo, J., & Hayes, B. E. (2025). Extending the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis: Fear of sexual violence and hate crimes among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons. Violence Against Women, 31(5), 1213– 1237. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012241234896
33. Özascilar, M. (2013). Predicting fear of crime: A test of the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis. International Review of Victimology, 19(3), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758013492754
34. Pain, R. (2001). Gender, race, age and fear in the city. Urban Studies, 38(5–6), 899–913. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980120046590
35. Rader, N. E. (2004). The threat of victimization: A theoretical reconceptualization of fear of crime. Sociological Spectrum, 24(6), 689-704. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170490467936
36. Rai, R., & Rai, A. K. (2025). Navigating fear: Women’s perceptions of safety and vulnerability in the urban landscape of Sambalpur, India. Violence&Victims. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1891/VV-2024-0194
37. Sparks, R. F. (1982). Ecological vulnerability, fear of crime and preventive strategies. British Journal of Criminology, 22(2), 173-188.
38. Riger, S., & Gordon, M. T. (1981). The fear of rape: A study in social control. Journal of Social Issues, 37(4), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01065.x
39. Scott, H. (2003). Stranger danger: Explaining women’s fear of crime. Western Criminology Review, 4(3), 203–214. https://westerncriminology.org/documents/WCR/v04n3/article_pdfs/scott.pdf
40. Sipahi, E. B. (2016). Türkiye’de kent sakinlerinin suç korkuları üzerine bir araştırma. Journal of International Social Research, 9(43), 2158–2169. https://doi.org/10.17719/jisr.20164317781
41. Skogan, W. G. (1990). Disorder and decline: Crime and the spiral of decay in American neighborhoods. University of California Press.
42. Snedker, K. A. (2006). Altruistic and vicarious fear of crime: Fear for others and gendered social roles. Sociological Forum, 21(2), 163–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11206-006-9019-1
43. Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
44. Stanko, E. A. (1995). Women, crime and fear. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 539(1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716295539001004
45. Sutton, J., & Farrall, S. (2005). Gender, socially desirable responding and the fear of crime: Are women really more anxious about crime? British Journal of Criminology, 45(2), 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh086
46. Türk, B., Hamzaoğlu, N., Yayak, A., & Şenyuva, G. (2023). Fear of crime in the context of gender and ambivalent sexism in Turkey. International Sociology, 38(1), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/02685809221141009
47. Vera-Gray, F., & Kelly, L. (2020). Contested gendered space: Public sexual harassment and women’s safety work. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(4), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2020.1732435
48. Vozmediano, L., San-Juan, C., Vergara, A. I., & Alonso-Alberca, N. (2017). “Watch out, Sweetie”: The impact of gender and offence type on parents’ altruistic fear of crime. Sex Roles, 77(9-10), 676–686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0758-7
49. Walklate, S. (2004). Gender, crime and criminal justice (2nd ed.). Willan.
50. Warr, M. (1995). The shadow of sexual assault: Fear of rape and women’s fear of crime. Social Forces, 75(2), 667–690. (Republished in edited volume; original work 1985.)
51. Warr, M. (2000). Fear of crime in the United States: Avenues for research and policy. In D. Duffee (Ed.), Measurement and analysis of crime and justice: Criminal justice 2000 (Vol. 4, pp. 451–489). National Institute of Justice.
52. Webster, K., Diemer, K., Honey, N., Mannix, S., Mickle, J., Morgan, J., Parkes, A., Politoff, V., Powell, A., Stubbs, J., & Ward, A. (2018). Australians’ attitudes to violence against women and gender equality: Findings from the 2017 National Community Attitudes towards Violence Against Women Survey (NCAS) (Research report No. 03/2018). Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety (ANROWS). https://ncas.anrows.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/NCAS-report-2018.pdf
53. Yates, A., & Ceccato, V. (2020). Individual and spatial dimensions of women’s fear of crime: A Scandinavian study case. In V. Ceccato& M. K. Nalla (Eds.), Crime and fear in public places: Towards safe, inclusive and sustainable cities (pp. 265–288). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429352775-18
54. Yavuz, Y. (2019). Suç mağduru olma korkusuna sosyolojik bir bakış. Toplum ve Kültür Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4, 28–52.
55. Zahra, S. S., Hameed, S., Baig, U., Muzaffar, R., Shahid, T., & Raza, S. (2024). Fear of crime victimization among females in public spaces. Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Research, 4(2), 1199–1203. https://doi.org/10.61919/jhrr.v4i2.1017