Analysis of Arctic Security Policies from the Perspective of International Law: The Cases of Russia and the US

Yıl 2017, , 83 - 118, 14.03.2018

Burcu Güçlü Akpınar

https://doi.org/10.17134/khosbd.405686

Cited By: 5

Öz

In
recent years, with the rise of global warming, ice layer on the North pole has
begun to melt with increasing rates. This melting layer has made the marine
area more useable and the access to hydrocarbons in the seabed has become
easier. Depending on this climatic change, the politics of the countries in
this area have also changed significantly. The Arctic region, which hosts
perhaps the most challenging living conditions of the world, has become a focal
point of the economic and political gains. Therewith, discussions on the
international status and sovereignty areas of the region have begun among
countries which have been neighbor to this region. Thus, Arctic has turned into
an area of conflicting interests among the neighboring countries. This has also
caused Russia and the US to challenge the competition conditions. Arctic is also
becoming a problematic region on the global scale. In order to solve these
problems, it is necessary to refer to the International Law. This study
analyzes the security policies of the Arctic regions of Russia and United
States from the framework of International Law and discusses the political,
economic and socio-cultural implications of these policies on the two states.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Arctic Region, International Law, Security Policies, Russia, USA

Uluslararası Hukuk Çerçevesinden Arktik Güvenliği Politikalarının Analizi: Rusya ve ABD Örneği

Öz

Son yıllarda artan
küresel ısınma ile beraber kuzey kutbunu kaplayan buz tabakası daha fazla
erimeye başlamıştır. Eriyen tabaka deniz alanını daha kullanılabilir bir duruma
getirmiş ve deniz tabanında yer alan hidrokarbonlara erişim daha kolay hâle
gelmiştir. Bu iklimsel değişime bağlı olarak ülkelerin bu alan ile ilgili
politikaları da ciddi anlamda değişime uğramıştır. Öyle ki, dünyanın belki de
en zorlu yaşam koşullarına ev sahipliği yapan Arktik bölgesi ekonomik ve
siyasal kazanımların odak noktası haline gelmiştir. Bölgenin uluslararası
statüsü ve egemenlik alanları konusunda tartışmalar baş göstermiştir. Böylece
Arktik O’na komşu olan ülkeler arasında çıkarların çatıştığı bir alana
dönüşmüştür. Bu durum Rusya ve ABD’nin rekabet koşullarının değişmesine de
neden olmuştur. Ayrıca Arktik, küresel ölçekte yaratmış olduğu etkileri ile
birlikte düşünüldükçe, giderek sorunlu bir bölgeye dönüşmektedir. Bu sorunların
çözümü için ise, uluslararası hukukun esas alınması ihtiyacı doğmaktadır. Bu
çalışma, Rusya ve ABD’nin Uluslararası Hukuk çerçevesinden Arktik Bölgesi’ne yönelik
güvenlik politikalarını analiz ederek, bu politikaların iki devlet üzerinde ne
gibi siyasi, ekonomik ve sosyo-kültürel etkiler ortaya çıkardığını
tartışmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Arktik Bölgesi, Uluslararası Hukuk, Güvenlik Politikaları, Rusya, ABD

Kaynakça

• Kaynakça Kitaplar Gardiner R. K. (2003). International Law. Harlow. Pearson Longman. Harris DJ. (2004). Cases and Materials on International Law, 6.th Edition. London. Thomson Sweet and Maxwell. Hillier T. (1999). Principles of Public International Law, 2.nd Edition. Routledge Cavendish Publishing. Köni H. (2016). Kaos-Batı Hâkimiyetinin Çöküşü, 2. Baskı. İstanbul. Wizart Edutainment. Meray S. L. (1977). Uluslararası Hukuk ve Örgütler El Kitabı. Ankara. Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi. Pazarcı H. (2010). Uluslararası Hukuk, 9. Baskı. Ankara. Turhan Kitabevi. Shaw M. N. (2008). International Law, 6.th Edition. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Sur M. (2010). Uluslararası Hukukun Esasları, 4. Baskı. İstanbul. Beta Yayıncılık. Young O. R. (1992). Arctic Politics, Conflict and Cooperation in the Circumpular North. Hanover. University Press of New England.
• e-Kitaplar
• Тишкова В. А. (Tişkova) (2016). Российская Арктика: коренные народы и промышленное освоение, Нестор-История. Москва. http://static.iea.ras.ru/books/Ros_arctica.pdf (20.01.2018).
• Makaleler
• Anderson J. (2016). The US Quietly Re-writes Arctic Policy. https://globalriskinsights.com/2016/11/23956/ (30.01.2018). Axe D. (2015) Russia and America prep forces for Arctic war. http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2015/10/04/russia-and- america-prep-forces-for-arctic-war/ (28.11.2016). Bittner J. (2016) To Whom Does The North Pole Belong? http://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2016-04/arctic-russia-america- conflict-zone (28.11.2016). Browne M. A. (2006). The Law of the Sea Convention and U.S. Policy. http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/gcil_crs_2006_report.pdf (15.11.2017). Buis A. (2016). First GRACE Follow-On Satellite Completes Construction. https://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/news/86/first-grace-follow-on-satellite- completes-construction/ (01.11.2017). Conley H. A. (2015). America in the Arctic. https://www.csis.org/analysis/america-arctic (30.01.2018). Cuthbertson L., Amores-Arrocha H., Malard L. A., Els N., Sattler B. and Pearce D. A., (2017). Characterisation of Arctic Bacterial Communities in the Air above Svalbard. http://www.mdpi.com/2079- 7737/6/2/29/htm (01.11.2017). Duyck S. “Drawing Lessons for Arctic Governance from the Antarctic Treaty System”, http://www.arcticcentre.org/loader.aspx?id= f4817f72-7fde-4152-bd84-c4ec85f990f5 (31.01.2018). Groves S. (2012). U.S. Accession to U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea Unnecessary to Develop Oil and Gas Resources. http://www.heritage.org/report/us-accession-un-convention-the-law- the-sea-unnecessary-develop-oil-and-gas-resources (10.11.2017). Hank J. (2016). Why the US Needs to Ratify UNCLOS. https://thediplomat.com/2016/04/why-the-us-needs-to-ratify-unclos/ (11.11.2017). Hirschfeld Davis J. (2015). Obama to Call for More Icebreakers in Arctic as U.S. Seeks Foothold. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/02/ us/politics/obama-to-call-for-more-icebreakers-in-arctic-as-us-seeks- foothold.html?_r=1 (28.11.2016). Huebert R. (2009). United States Arctic Policy: The Reluctant Arctic Power. SPP Briefing Papers, Volume 2. Issue 2. https://www.policyschool.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/ sppbriefing-huebertonline.pdf (30.01.2018). Lefebvre B. (2017). Trump presses for Arctic offshore oil opening. https://www.politico.com/story/2017/04/27/trump-arctic-oil- offshore-237722 (24.01.2018). Macalister T. (2011). Exhausted global oil supplies make Arctic the new hydrocarbon frontier. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/ 2011/jul/05/oil-supplies-arctic (5.11.2017). Milazzo E. The Arctic: the role of indigenous peoples. https://accelfellowship.wordpress.com/the-arctic-the-role-of- indigenous-peoples/ (02.02.2018). Mirasola C. (2015). Why the US Should Ratify UNCLOS: A View from the South and East China Seas. http://harvardnsj.org/2015/03/why-the- us-should-ratify-unclos-a-view-from-the-south-and-east-china-seas/ (10.11.2017). Moore J. N. (2004). United States Adherence To The Law Of The Sea Convention A Compelling National Interest. http://www.virginia.edu/colp/pdf/house-testimony.pdf (15.11.2017). Mortimer C. (2017) Russia is Building up It’s Arctic Military Presence and Nato Should be Worried, Says New Report. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/russia-arctic- military-presence-nato-worried-us-report-tensions-north-america- a7934741.html (24.01.2018). Parfitt T. (2007). Russia plants flag on North Pole seabed. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/aug/02/russia.arctic (30.01.2018). Patrick S. M. (2012). (Almost) Everyone Agrees: The U.S. Should Ratify the Law of the Sea Treaty. https://www.theatlantic.com/ international/archive/2012/06/-almost-everyone-agrees-the-us- should-ratify-the-law-of-the-sea-treaty/258301/ (11.11.2017). Rabkin J. (2006) The Law of the Sea Treaty: A Bad Deal for America. Competitive Enterprise Institute Issue Analysis, No.3. http://www.cei.org/pdf/5352.pdf (10.11.2017). Sorokin I. (2015). The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Why the U.S. Hasn’t Ratified It and Where It Stands Today. http://berkeleytravaux.com/un-convention-law-sea-u-s-hasnt- ratified-stands-today/ (18.11.2016). Virtanen, V. (2013) The Arctic in World Politics. The United States, Russia, and China in the Arctic – implications for Finland. http://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/fellows/files/virtanen.pdf (28.11.2017). Watson P. (2017) A Melting Arctic Could Spark a New Cold War. http://time.com/4773238/russia-cold-war-united-states-artic-donald- trump-barack-obama-vladimir-putin/ (27.01.2018). Алиферова А. В. (Aliferova) (2012). История Освоения Арктики, Россия в Арктике XXI век: среда обитания, общество, освоение, Материалы I Всероссийской молодёжной конференции 14-15 июня 2012 г. Томского политехнического университета. Томск. 2012. (ss.6-8). http://www.lib.tpu.ru/fulltext/c/2012/C74/C74.pdf (23.11.2017). Виноградов Е. (Vinogradov) (2013) Экcперты против добычи нефти и газа в Арктике. http://inosmi.ru/world/20130419/208226451.html (28.09.2016). Кай И. и Филатова И. (Kai ve Filatova) (2013). Борьба за Арктику: видна лишь вершина айсберга? http://inosmi.ru/russia/ 20131107/214529054.html (27.09.2016). Ковалев А.А. (Kovalev) (2013) Международно-Правовой Режим Арктики И Интереси России, Ред. И. С. Иванова, Арктический Регион Проблемы Международного Сотрудничества том 1, Аспект Пресс. Москва. (ss. 25-41). http://russiancouncil.ru/ common/upload/Arctic%20Anthology%20V ol%201-1.pdf (10.01.2018). Конышев В. и Сергунин А. (Konişev ve Sergunin) (2011). Арктическое Направление Внешней Политики России: Проблемы и Перспективы. Обозревател-Observer, 3/2011. https://www.hse.ru/pubs/share/direct/document/75054638 (26.09.2016). Матвеевич П. Л. (Matveyeviç) (2011). Международно-правовые проблемы раздела экономических пространств Арктики. https://regnum.ru/news/1449911.html (26.01.2018). Половинкин В. Н. и Фомичев А. Б. (Polovinkin ve Fomiçev) (2013). Значение Северного И Арктического Регионов В Новых Геополитических И Геоэкономических Условиях Арктика. экология и экономика № 3 (11). http://arctica- ac.ru/docs/3%2811%29/058_063_ARKTIKA_3%2811%29_09_201 3.pdf (12.11.2017). Пушкарев М.С. (Puşkaryev) (2012) Состояние и Перспективы Освоения Месторождений Нефти и Газа Арктического Шельфа. Россия в Арктике XXI век: среда обитания, общество, освоение, Материалы I Всероссийской молодёжной конференции 14-15 июня 2012 г. Томского политехнического университета. Томск. (ss. 29-31). http://www.lib.tpu.ru/fulltext/c/2012/C74/C74.pdf, (23.11.2017). Рагаускас Р. (Ragauskas) (2011). Приоритеты и политика России в арктическом регионе. http://inosmi.ru/arctica/20110427/ 168837531.html, (28.09.2016).
• Yazarı Belli Olmayan Makaleler
• Arctic Regions And Its Concerns, Threats And Potential Challenges.http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/civil_protection/civil/prote/ pdfdocs/pretear_final_report_en.pdf, (s.10) (14.11.2017). Arctic Sunrise case: Russia ordered to pay damages. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34045493 (11.11.2017). China, Japan, South Korea to Hold Talks on Arctic Region http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/defence/article/193838 2/china-japan-south-korea-hold-talks-arctic-region (25.11.2016). Thawing Permafrost: A Slow, Giant Carbon Release. https://insideclimatenews.org/content/thawing-permafrost-slow- giant-carbon-release (09.11.2017). The Arctic Environment. https://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/ Be%20Out%20There/Schoolyard%20Habitats/ArcticEnvironment. pdf, (s.1) (14.11.2017). The Melting North. http://www.economist.com/node/21556798 (11.11.2017). The Polar Regions. http://www.educapoles.org/assets/uploads/ teaching_dossiers_files/dp_cze_01_en.pdf , (s.2), (14.11.2017). The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A historical perspective). http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/ convention_historical_perspective.htm#Third Conference (14.11.2017). Американские ледоколы с ракетами на борту могут подорвать сотрудничество в Арктике. http://mixednews.ru/archives/120522 (05.11.2017). Государственная политика в Арктике: проблемы и перспективы. http://www.arctic-info.ru/FederalMonitoringMedia/21-05- 2012/gosydarstvennaa-politika-v-arktike--problemi-i-perspektivi-- monitoring-federal_nih-smi--14-20-maa-20/ (24.09.2016) . Зачем России Арктика. http://www.lgz.ru/article/-14-6593-12-04- 2017/zachem-rossii-arktika/ (07.11.2017) НАТО: экспансия в Арктику. http://odynokiy.livejournal.com/337474.html (06.11.2017). Путин поручил правительству "защитить" интересы России в Арктике. https://www.unian.net/world/1849664-putin-poruchil- pravitelstvu-zaschitit-interesyi-rossii-v-arktike.html (5.11.2017). Web Sitesi
• http://government.ru/info/18359/, (25.09.2017) http://government.ru/info/18360/, (02.02.2018) http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/42117/page/1, (02.02.2018) http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/50060, (04.01.2018) http://library.narfu.ru/sites/arctic/rus/info/gosud_politika_v_arktike/Pages/р азграничение-континентального-шельфа.aspx , (27.01.2018) http://static.kremlin.ru/media/events/files/ru/uAFi5nvux2twaqjftS5yrIZUVT Jan77L.pdf, (02.02.2018) http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/ (25.11.2017) http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Ilulissat_Declaration.pdf http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/06/us-russia-political-tensions- arctic, (17.06.2015) http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e. pdf, (24.11.2016) http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf, (21.01.2018) http://www.unicankara.org.tr/doc_pdf/denizhukuku.pdf (26.01.2018) http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ilulissat_Declaration (30.10.2017) https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/g/grace-fo, (09.11.2017) https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/case_no.22/published /C22_Order_221113.pdf, (s.252) (11.11.2017)
• Raporlar
• Heininen L., Sergunin A., Yarovoy G., (2014). Russian Strategies in the Arctic: Avoiding A New Cold War, Valdai Discussion Club Report. http://www.uarctic.org/media/857300/arctic_eng.pdf, (17.06.2015) O'Rourke R. (2015) Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research Service Report. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41153.pdf, (17.06.2015) Report to Congress on Strategy to Protect United States National Security Interests in the Arctic Region (2016). Department of Defense Report. https://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2016-Arctic- Strategy-UNCLAS-cleared-for-release.pdf, (01.02.2018) Хейнинен Л., Сергунин А. и Яровой Г. (Heininen, Sergunin ve Yaravoy) (2014) Политика России В Арктике: Как Избежать Новой Холодной Войны, Доклад грантополучателей Международного дискуссионного клуба «Валдай». https://narfu.ru/aan/ Encyclopedia_Arctic/arctic_rus.pdf, (17.09.2016).