Araştırma Makalesi
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Savunma Harcamaları ve Petrol Tüketimi İlişkisi

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 40, 33 - 82, 05.11.2021
https://doi.org/10.17134/khosbd.1001184

Öz

Fosil yakıtların askerî alandaki kullanım miktarı savunma harcamalarını belirleyen önemli faktörler arasında yer almaktadır. Özellikle petrol tüketimi bu miktarının büyük bir bölümünü oluştururken ülkeleri fosil yakıtlara bağımlı hale getirmektedir. Çalışmada petrol tüketiminin savunma harcamaları ile olan ilişkisi incelenirken, ülkelerin zengin petrol rezervlerine sahip olup olmamasının savunma harcamalarına olan etkisi de göz önünde bulundurularak gruplandırılmıştır. Fosil yakıt bağımlılığı yüksek ülkeler arasındaki ilk grup yüksek petrol rezervlere sahip olan ülkelerden oluşurken ikinci grup düşük petrol rezervlere sahip ülkelerden oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada savunma harcamaları ile petrol tüketimi arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi 35 ülke için 1997-2014 yılları arasındaki verilerle Johansen eşbütünleşme testi, hata düzeltme modeli ve VECM Granger nedensellik testi ile araştırılmıştır. Analiz sonucunda eşbütünleşme ilişkisi bulunan ülkelerden Ürdün, Umman, Malta, Ekvador ve Rusya için çift yönlü, Lüksemburg ve Mısır için petrol tüketiminden savunma harcamalarına, İtalya için savunma harcamalarından petrol tüketimine doğru tek yönlü nedensellik ilişkisi bulunmuştur. Ülkelerin zengin petrol rezervlerine sahip olup olmamasının nedensellik yönü açısından yaratabileceği farka ilişkin yeterince kanıt bulunamamıştır.

Kaynakça

  • Hamilton, J. D. (2011). Historical Oil Shocks. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 16790
  • IEA, (2004). Wold Energy Outlook, 2004. International Energy Agency, 1-572.
  • IEA, (2015). International Energy Security: Common Concept for Energy Producing, Consuming and Transit Countries, International Energy Agency Energy Charter Secretariat, 1-28.
  • Rasche, R. H. and Tatom, J. A. (1977). Energy Resources and Potential GNP. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, (Jun), 10-24.
  • Rosner, K. (2010). Closing the Gap Between Energy and National Security Policy. Journal of Energy Security, May. Akarca, A. T. and Long, T. V. (1980). On the Relationship Between Energy and GNP: A Reexamination. The Journal of Energy and Development, 5(2), 326-331.
  • Alaali, F., Roberts, J. and Taylor, K. (2015). The Effect of Energy Consumption and Human Capital on Economic Growth: An Exploration of Oil Exporting and Developed Countries. SERPS (Sheffield Economics Research Papers Series), 15, 1-23.
  • Ali, H. E. and Abdellatif, O. A. (2015). Military Expenditures and Natural Resources: Evidence from Rentier States in the Middle East and North Africa. Defence and Peace Economics, 26(1), 5-13.
  • Altınay, G. and Karagol, E. (2004). Structural Break, Unit Root, and the Causality Between Energy Consumption and GDP in Turkey. Energy Economics, 26(6), 985-994. Asafu-Adjaye, J. (2000). The Relationship Between Energy Consumption, Energy Prices and Economic Growth: Time Series Evidence from Asian Developing Countries. Energy Economics, 22(6), 615-625.
  • Asafu-Adjaye, J., Byrne, D. and Alvarez, M. (2016). Economic Growth, Fossil Fuel and Non-Fossil Consumption: A Pooled Mean Group Analysis Using Proxies for Capital. Energy Economics, 60, 345-356.
  • Bildirici, M. (2016). Defense, Economic Growth and Energy Consumption in China. Procedia Economics and Finance, 38, 257-263.
  • Bithas, K. and Kalimeris, P. (2016). A Brief History of Energy Use in Human Societies. Revisiting the Energy-Development Link, Springer, Cham. 5-10.
  • Bulut, Ş. ve Özdemir, A. (2012). İstanbul Menkul Kıymetler Borsası ve “Dow Jones Industrial” Arasındaki İlişki: Eşbütünleşme Analizi. Yönetim ve Ekonomi: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(1), 211-224.
  • Bülbül, S. E. ve Demiral, A. (2016). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Ekonomik Büyüme, İhracat ve Eximbank Kredileri Arasındaki Nedensellik İlişkisi: 2002-2015. Öneri Dergisi, 12(46), 21-40.
  • Chandran, V. G. R., Sharma, S., and Madhavan, K. (2010). Electricity Consumption–Growth Nexus: The Case Of Malaysia. Energy Policy, 38(1), 606-612.
  • Cheng, B. S. and Lai, T. W. (1997). An Investigation of Co-İntegration and Causality Between Energy Consumption and Economic Activity in Taiwan. Energy Economics, 19(4), 435-444.
  • Cherp, A. and Jewell, J. (2011). The Three Perspectives on Energy Security: Intellectual History, Disciplinary Roots and the Potential for Integration. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 3(4), 202-212.
  • Clark, B., Jorgenson, A. K. and Kentor, J. (2010). Militarization and Energy Consumption: A Test of Treadmill of Destruction Theory in Comparative Perspective. International Journal of Sociology, 40(2), 23-43.
  • Çelikpala, M. (2014). Enerji Güvenliği: NATO'nun Yeni Tehdit Algısı. International Relations/Uluslararasi İliskiler, 10(40), 75-99.
  • Eden, S. H. and Hwang, B. K. (1984). The Relationship Between Energy and GNP: Further Results. Energy Economics, 6(3) 186-190.
  • Erdal, G., Erdal, H. ve Esengün, K. (2008). The Causality Between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in Turkey. Energy Policy, 36(10), 3838-3842.
  • Erdal, L. ve Karakaya, E. (2012). Enerji Arz Güvenliğini Etkileyen Ekonomik, Siyasi ve Coğrafi Faktörler. Uludağ Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 31(1). 107-136.
  • Erdinç, Z. (2008). İkiz Açıklar Hipotezinin Türkiye’de 1950-2005 Yılları Arasında Eş Bütünleşme Analizi ve Granger Nedensellik Testi ile İncelenmesi Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(1), 209-222.
  • Flaherty, C. and Leal Filho, W. (2013). Energy Security as a Subset of National Security. Global Energy Policy and Security, Springer, London,.11-25.
  • Fuinhas, J. A. and Marques, A. C. (2012). Energy Consumption and Economic Growth Nexus in Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain and Turkey: An ARDL Bounds Test Approach (1965–2009). Energy Economics, 34(2),. 511-517.
  • Granger, C. W. (1988). Some Recent Development in A Concept of Causality. Journal of Econometrics, 39(1-2), 199-211.
  • Hondroyiannis, G., Lolos, S. and Papapetrou, E. (2002). Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Assessing the Evidence from Greece. Energy Economics, 24(4), 319-336.
  • Ibrahiem, D. M. (2017). Road Energy Consumption, Economic Growth, Population and Urbanization in Egypt: Cointegration and Causality Analysis. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 20(3), 1-14.
  • Kraft, J. and Kraft, A. (1978). On the Relationship Between Energy and GNP. The Journal of Energy and Development, 3(2), 401-403.
  • Kruyt, B., Van Vuuren, D. P., de Vries, H. J. and Groenenberg, H. (2009). Indicators for Energy Security. Energy Policy, 37(6), 2166-2181.
  • Lee, A. R. and Glasure, Y. U. (1997). Public Confidence in Political and Private İnstitutions in Korea. Pacific Focus, 12(2), 79-91.
  • Lee, C. C. (2006). The Causality Relationship Between Energy Consumption and GDP in G-11 Countries Revisited. Energy Policy, 34(9), 1086-1093.
  • Lindenberger, D. and Kummel, R. (2002). Energy-Dependent Production Functions and The Optimization Model “PRISE” of Price-İnduced Sectoral Evolution. International Journal of Thermodynamics, 5(3), 101-107.
  • Lotz, R. (2016). The Impact of Renewable Energy Consumption to Economic Growth: A Panel Data Application. Energy Economics, 53, 58-63.
  • Masih, A. M. and Masih, R. (1996). Energy Consumption, Real Income and Temporal Causality: Results from a Multi-Country Study Based on Cointegration and Error-Correction Modelling Techniques. Energy Economics, 18(3), 165-183.
  • Mucuk, M. ve Uysal, D. (2009). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Enerji Tüketimi ve Ekonomik Büyüme. Maliye Dergisi, 157, 105-115.
  • Muhsin, K. ve Kınık, E. (2015). Türkiye'de Elektrik Tüketimi Çeşitleri ve Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Ekonometrik Bir Analizi. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(2), 333-353.
  • Narayan, P. K. and Smyth, R. (2009). Multivariate Granger Causality Between Electricity Consumption, Exports and GDP: Evidence from a Panel of Middle Eastern Countries. Energy Policy, 37(1) 229-236.
  • Oh, W. and Lee, K. (2004). Causal Relationship Between Energy Consumption and GDP Revisited: The Case of Korea 1970–1999. Energy Economics,26(1) 51-59.
  • Ouedraogo, N. S. (2013). Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Evidence from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Energy Economics, 36, 637-647.
  • Perlo-Freeman, S. and Brauner, J. (2012). Natural Resources and Military Expenditure: The Case of Algeria. The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, 7(1), 15-21.
  • Smil, V. (2004). World History and Energy. Encyclopedia of Energy, 6, 549-561.
  • Soytas, U. ve Sarı, R. (2003). Energy Consumption and GDP: Causality Relationship in G-7 Countries and Emerging Markets. Energy Economics, 25(1), 33-37.
  • Şimşek, M. ve Kadılar, C. (2010). Türkiye’de Beşeri Sermaye, İhracat ve Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Nedensellik Analizi. C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 11(1), 115-140.
  • Uzunöz, M. ve Akçay, Y. (2012). Türkiye’de Büyüme ve Enerji Tüketimi Arasındaki Nedensellik İlişkisi: 1970-2010. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3(2), 1-16.
  • Yergin, D. (2006). Ensuring Energy Security. Foreign Affairs, 85(2) 69-82.
  • Bölükbaş, M. T. (2017). Türkiye’de Kamu Harcamaları ve Dış Borçlanma İlişkisi: Ekonometrik Bir Analiz. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
  • Gür, S. U. (2014). Türkiye’de Vergi Gelirleri ile Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Uzun ve Kısa Dönemde İncelenmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
  • Roth, A. (2015). Energy and Sustainable Development in the European Union. Case Study: Nuclear Energy Role in the Energetic System of Germany, France and United Kingdom. Babeş-Bolyai Universiy Cluj-Napoca Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration PhD Thesis
  • Yaşar, N. (2016). Enerji Tüketimi ve İktisadi Büyüme Arasındaki İlişki: Panel Veri Analizi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi.
  • BP. (2017). 13 Temmuz 2017’de https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html adresinden alınmıştır.
  • Dünya Bankası. (2017). 13 Temmuz 2017’de https://databank.worldbank.org/home.aspx adresinden alınmıştır.
  • WorldAtlas. (2017). 13 Temmuz 2017’de https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ countries-the-most-dependent-on-fossil-fuels.html adresinden alınmıştır.

The Relationship between Defence Expenditures and Oil Consumption

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 40, 33 - 82, 05.11.2021
https://doi.org/10.17134/khosbd.1001184

Öz

The amount of use of fossil fuels in the military is among the important factors that determine defense expenditures. Especially, oil consumption makes up a large part of this amount, and it makes countries dependent on fossil fuels. In the study, while examining the relationship between oil consumption and defense expenditures, countries has grouped by considering the effect of having rich oil reserves or not on defence expenditures. The first group among countries with high fossil fuel dependency consists of countries with high oil reserves, while the second group consists of countries with low oil reserves. This paper aimed to examine the causality relationship between defence expenditures and oil consumption for 35 fossil fuel-dependent countries, for the time-period 1997-2014 by using Johansen co-integration test, error correction model and VECM Granger causality test. The results of empirical analysis indicates that there is a bidirectional causality relationship in Jordan, Oman, Malta, Ecuador and Russia, unidirectional relationship running from oil consumption to defence expenditures in Luxembourg and Egypt and unidirectional relationship running from defence expenditures to oil consumption in Italy. There is not enough evidence to reveal the causality difference between countries having rich oil reserves or not.

Kaynakça

  • Hamilton, J. D. (2011). Historical Oil Shocks. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 16790
  • IEA, (2004). Wold Energy Outlook, 2004. International Energy Agency, 1-572.
  • IEA, (2015). International Energy Security: Common Concept for Energy Producing, Consuming and Transit Countries, International Energy Agency Energy Charter Secretariat, 1-28.
  • Rasche, R. H. and Tatom, J. A. (1977). Energy Resources and Potential GNP. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, (Jun), 10-24.
  • Rosner, K. (2010). Closing the Gap Between Energy and National Security Policy. Journal of Energy Security, May. Akarca, A. T. and Long, T. V. (1980). On the Relationship Between Energy and GNP: A Reexamination. The Journal of Energy and Development, 5(2), 326-331.
  • Alaali, F., Roberts, J. and Taylor, K. (2015). The Effect of Energy Consumption and Human Capital on Economic Growth: An Exploration of Oil Exporting and Developed Countries. SERPS (Sheffield Economics Research Papers Series), 15, 1-23.
  • Ali, H. E. and Abdellatif, O. A. (2015). Military Expenditures and Natural Resources: Evidence from Rentier States in the Middle East and North Africa. Defence and Peace Economics, 26(1), 5-13.
  • Altınay, G. and Karagol, E. (2004). Structural Break, Unit Root, and the Causality Between Energy Consumption and GDP in Turkey. Energy Economics, 26(6), 985-994. Asafu-Adjaye, J. (2000). The Relationship Between Energy Consumption, Energy Prices and Economic Growth: Time Series Evidence from Asian Developing Countries. Energy Economics, 22(6), 615-625.
  • Asafu-Adjaye, J., Byrne, D. and Alvarez, M. (2016). Economic Growth, Fossil Fuel and Non-Fossil Consumption: A Pooled Mean Group Analysis Using Proxies for Capital. Energy Economics, 60, 345-356.
  • Bildirici, M. (2016). Defense, Economic Growth and Energy Consumption in China. Procedia Economics and Finance, 38, 257-263.
  • Bithas, K. and Kalimeris, P. (2016). A Brief History of Energy Use in Human Societies. Revisiting the Energy-Development Link, Springer, Cham. 5-10.
  • Bulut, Ş. ve Özdemir, A. (2012). İstanbul Menkul Kıymetler Borsası ve “Dow Jones Industrial” Arasındaki İlişki: Eşbütünleşme Analizi. Yönetim ve Ekonomi: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(1), 211-224.
  • Bülbül, S. E. ve Demiral, A. (2016). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Ekonomik Büyüme, İhracat ve Eximbank Kredileri Arasındaki Nedensellik İlişkisi: 2002-2015. Öneri Dergisi, 12(46), 21-40.
  • Chandran, V. G. R., Sharma, S., and Madhavan, K. (2010). Electricity Consumption–Growth Nexus: The Case Of Malaysia. Energy Policy, 38(1), 606-612.
  • Cheng, B. S. and Lai, T. W. (1997). An Investigation of Co-İntegration and Causality Between Energy Consumption and Economic Activity in Taiwan. Energy Economics, 19(4), 435-444.
  • Cherp, A. and Jewell, J. (2011). The Three Perspectives on Energy Security: Intellectual History, Disciplinary Roots and the Potential for Integration. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 3(4), 202-212.
  • Clark, B., Jorgenson, A. K. and Kentor, J. (2010). Militarization and Energy Consumption: A Test of Treadmill of Destruction Theory in Comparative Perspective. International Journal of Sociology, 40(2), 23-43.
  • Çelikpala, M. (2014). Enerji Güvenliği: NATO'nun Yeni Tehdit Algısı. International Relations/Uluslararasi İliskiler, 10(40), 75-99.
  • Eden, S. H. and Hwang, B. K. (1984). The Relationship Between Energy and GNP: Further Results. Energy Economics, 6(3) 186-190.
  • Erdal, G., Erdal, H. ve Esengün, K. (2008). The Causality Between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in Turkey. Energy Policy, 36(10), 3838-3842.
  • Erdal, L. ve Karakaya, E. (2012). Enerji Arz Güvenliğini Etkileyen Ekonomik, Siyasi ve Coğrafi Faktörler. Uludağ Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 31(1). 107-136.
  • Erdinç, Z. (2008). İkiz Açıklar Hipotezinin Türkiye’de 1950-2005 Yılları Arasında Eş Bütünleşme Analizi ve Granger Nedensellik Testi ile İncelenmesi Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(1), 209-222.
  • Flaherty, C. and Leal Filho, W. (2013). Energy Security as a Subset of National Security. Global Energy Policy and Security, Springer, London,.11-25.
  • Fuinhas, J. A. and Marques, A. C. (2012). Energy Consumption and Economic Growth Nexus in Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain and Turkey: An ARDL Bounds Test Approach (1965–2009). Energy Economics, 34(2),. 511-517.
  • Granger, C. W. (1988). Some Recent Development in A Concept of Causality. Journal of Econometrics, 39(1-2), 199-211.
  • Hondroyiannis, G., Lolos, S. and Papapetrou, E. (2002). Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Assessing the Evidence from Greece. Energy Economics, 24(4), 319-336.
  • Ibrahiem, D. M. (2017). Road Energy Consumption, Economic Growth, Population and Urbanization in Egypt: Cointegration and Causality Analysis. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 20(3), 1-14.
  • Kraft, J. and Kraft, A. (1978). On the Relationship Between Energy and GNP. The Journal of Energy and Development, 3(2), 401-403.
  • Kruyt, B., Van Vuuren, D. P., de Vries, H. J. and Groenenberg, H. (2009). Indicators for Energy Security. Energy Policy, 37(6), 2166-2181.
  • Lee, A. R. and Glasure, Y. U. (1997). Public Confidence in Political and Private İnstitutions in Korea. Pacific Focus, 12(2), 79-91.
  • Lee, C. C. (2006). The Causality Relationship Between Energy Consumption and GDP in G-11 Countries Revisited. Energy Policy, 34(9), 1086-1093.
  • Lindenberger, D. and Kummel, R. (2002). Energy-Dependent Production Functions and The Optimization Model “PRISE” of Price-İnduced Sectoral Evolution. International Journal of Thermodynamics, 5(3), 101-107.
  • Lotz, R. (2016). The Impact of Renewable Energy Consumption to Economic Growth: A Panel Data Application. Energy Economics, 53, 58-63.
  • Masih, A. M. and Masih, R. (1996). Energy Consumption, Real Income and Temporal Causality: Results from a Multi-Country Study Based on Cointegration and Error-Correction Modelling Techniques. Energy Economics, 18(3), 165-183.
  • Mucuk, M. ve Uysal, D. (2009). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Enerji Tüketimi ve Ekonomik Büyüme. Maliye Dergisi, 157, 105-115.
  • Muhsin, K. ve Kınık, E. (2015). Türkiye'de Elektrik Tüketimi Çeşitleri ve Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Ekonometrik Bir Analizi. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(2), 333-353.
  • Narayan, P. K. and Smyth, R. (2009). Multivariate Granger Causality Between Electricity Consumption, Exports and GDP: Evidence from a Panel of Middle Eastern Countries. Energy Policy, 37(1) 229-236.
  • Oh, W. and Lee, K. (2004). Causal Relationship Between Energy Consumption and GDP Revisited: The Case of Korea 1970–1999. Energy Economics,26(1) 51-59.
  • Ouedraogo, N. S. (2013). Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Evidence from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Energy Economics, 36, 637-647.
  • Perlo-Freeman, S. and Brauner, J. (2012). Natural Resources and Military Expenditure: The Case of Algeria. The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, 7(1), 15-21.
  • Smil, V. (2004). World History and Energy. Encyclopedia of Energy, 6, 549-561.
  • Soytas, U. ve Sarı, R. (2003). Energy Consumption and GDP: Causality Relationship in G-7 Countries and Emerging Markets. Energy Economics, 25(1), 33-37.
  • Şimşek, M. ve Kadılar, C. (2010). Türkiye’de Beşeri Sermaye, İhracat ve Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Nedensellik Analizi. C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 11(1), 115-140.
  • Uzunöz, M. ve Akçay, Y. (2012). Türkiye’de Büyüme ve Enerji Tüketimi Arasındaki Nedensellik İlişkisi: 1970-2010. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3(2), 1-16.
  • Yergin, D. (2006). Ensuring Energy Security. Foreign Affairs, 85(2) 69-82.
  • Bölükbaş, M. T. (2017). Türkiye’de Kamu Harcamaları ve Dış Borçlanma İlişkisi: Ekonometrik Bir Analiz. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
  • Gür, S. U. (2014). Türkiye’de Vergi Gelirleri ile Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Uzun ve Kısa Dönemde İncelenmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
  • Roth, A. (2015). Energy and Sustainable Development in the European Union. Case Study: Nuclear Energy Role in the Energetic System of Germany, France and United Kingdom. Babeş-Bolyai Universiy Cluj-Napoca Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration PhD Thesis
  • Yaşar, N. (2016). Enerji Tüketimi ve İktisadi Büyüme Arasındaki İlişki: Panel Veri Analizi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi.
  • BP. (2017). 13 Temmuz 2017’de https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html adresinden alınmıştır.
  • Dünya Bankası. (2017). 13 Temmuz 2017’de https://databank.worldbank.org/home.aspx adresinden alınmıştır.
  • WorldAtlas. (2017). 13 Temmuz 2017’de https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ countries-the-most-dependent-on-fossil-fuels.html adresinden alınmıştır.
Toplam 52 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Mehmet Samet Erdem 0000-0001-7344-2166

Selami Sezgin 0000-0002-4604-0601

Yayımlanma Tarihi 5 Kasım 2021
Gönderilme Tarihi 7 Ekim 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 2 Sayı: 40

Kaynak Göster

IEEE M. S. Erdem ve S. Sezgin, “Savunma Harcamaları ve Petrol Tüketimi İlişkisi”, Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi, c. 2, sy. 40, ss. 33–82, 2021, doi: 10.17134/khosbd.1001184.