Impacts of Climate Change on Women's Health Across Life Stages

Öz

Climate change poses a profound and multifaceted threat to human health, disproportionately affecting women across the life course from early childhood to the climacteric period. This review synthesizes current evidence on how climate-related exposures influence women’s health through interconnected biological, social, and economic pathways, highlighting how intersecting vulnerabilities exacerbate existing health inequities. In infancy and childhood, rising temperatures, food insecurity, and air pollu-tion are associated with impaired growth, developmental delays, and heightened susceptibility to infec-tious diseases. During adolescence, gender inequality and socioeconomic disadvantage amplify inter-connected climate-driven risks, including iron deficiency anemia, disrupted menstrual health, child marriage, obstetric complications, gender-based violence, and limited access to sexual and reproduc-tive health services, all of which are further compounded by disaster-related displacement and psycho-logical distress. In adulthood, women experience an increased burden of chronic conditions, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and certain cancers, linked to extreme weather events, environmental pollutants, and nutritional instability. Mental health consequences are also sub-stantial, with elevated rates of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder reported in cli-mate-affected contexts. The climacteric period presents additional challenges: heat exposure may in-tensify vasomotor and sleep disturbances, while prolonged contact with endocrine-disrupting chemicals may contribute to hormonal dysregulation, earlier menopause, and broader reproductive health disturb-ances. Collectively, these impacts compromise quality of life and reinforce structural gender dispari-ties. Addressing them requires climate-responsive health policies, equitable healthcare access, and sustained investment in education, research, and women’s leadership in decision-making. A gender-responsive approach is essential to promoting resilience and achieving equitable, sustainable health outcomes in the era of climate change.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Climate change
• women’s health
• reproductive healt
• gender inequality

İklim Değişikliğinin Yaşam Dönemleri Boyunca Kadın Sağlığı Üzerindeki Etkileri

Öz

İklim değişikliği, insan sağlığı için derin ve çok boyutlu bir tehdit oluşturmakta ve kadınları yaşam döngüsü boyunca erken çocukluktan klimakterik döneme kadar orantısız biçimde etkilemektedir. Bu derleme, iklimle ilişkili maruziyetlerin kadın sağlığını nasıl etkilediğine ilişkin güncel kanıtları biyolo-jik, sosyal ve ekonomik olarak birbiriyle bağlantılı yollar çerçevesinde sentezlemekte ve kesişen kırıl-ganlıkların mevcut sağlık eşitsizliklerini nasıl derinleştirdiğini vurgulamaktadır. Bebeklik ve çocukluk döneminde artan sıcaklıklar, gıda güvencesizliği ve hava kirliliği; büyüme geriliği, gelişimsel gecikme-ler ve enfeksiyon hastalıklarına yatkınlıkta artış ile ilişkilidir. Ergenlik döneminde toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliği ve sosyoekonomik dezavantaj; demir eksikliği anemisi, bozulmuş menstrüel sağlık, erken evlilik, obstetrik komplikasyonlar, toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı şiddet ve cinsel sağlık ile üreme sağlığı hizmetlerine sınırlı erişim gibi iklim kaynaklı riskleri birbirleriyle bağlantılı biçimde artırmakta; tüm bu riskler afet kaynaklı yerinden edilme ve psikolojik yük tarafından daha da derinleştirilmektedir. Yetişkinlikte kadınlar, aşırı iklim olayları, çevresel kirleticiler ve beslenme güvencesizliği ile ilişkili olarak solunum ve kardiyovasküler hastalıklar, diyabet ve bazı kanserler dâhil olmak üzere kronik hastalıklar açısından daha yüksek bir yükle karşılaşmaktadır. Ruh sağlığı sonuçları da olumsuz etki-lenmekte; iklimden etkilenen ortamlarda kadınlarda anksiyete, depresyon ve travma sonrası stres bo-zukluğu oranlarının arttığı bildirilmektedir. Klimakterik dönem ek zorluklar ortaya koymaktadır. Isı maruziyeti vazomotor ve uyku bozukluklarını şiddetlendirebilirken, endokrin bozucu kimyasallara uzun süreli maruziyet hormonal düzensizliklere, erken menopoz başlangıcına ve daha geniş kapsamlı üreme sağlığı sorunlarına katkıda bulunabilmektedir. Tüm bu etkiler yaşam kalitesini azaltmakta ve yapısal toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliklerini pekiştirmektedir. Bu nedenle iklim duyarlı sağlık politikaları, sağlık hizmetlerine adil erişim ve eğitim, araştırma ile kadınların karar alma süreçlerindeki liderliğini destekleyen sürdürülebilir yatırımlar gereklidir. Toplumsal cinsiyete duyarlı bir yaklaşım, iklim deği-şikliği çağında dirençliliği artırmak ve adil, sürdürülebilir sağlık sonuçlarına ulaşmak için temel önem-dedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İklim değişikliği
• kadın sağlığı
• üreme sağlığı
• toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliği

Kaynakça

1. Abdurehim, A., Melaku, Y., Hassen, H., Mosa, H., Jemal, M., Abawari, M. J., Kemal, A., Mohammed, T., Biru, B., Alemu, E., Ali, A. S., Mohammed, B., Mosa, B. D., Kedir, S., & Abate, K. H. (2024). Nexus between postpartum depression and exclusive breastfeeding practices among lactating mothers in Assosa Town, West Ethiopia. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1357264
2. Ahmed, K. J., Haq, S. M. A., & Bartiaux, F. (2019). The nexus between extreme weather events, sexual violence, and early marriage: a study of vulnerable populations in Bangladesh. Population and Environment, 40(3), 303–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-019-0312-3
3. Aksu, A., Buldum, A., & Vefikuluçay Yılmaz, D. (2024). Impacts of climate change on women’s health and solutions. In Climate Justice for Whom: Impacts of Climate Change on Women and Solutions (pp. 185–210). Sakarya University, Scientific Publications Coordinatorship. https://doi.org/10.59537/saupress.2373
4. Auger, N., Fraser, W. D., Sauve, R., Bilodeau-Bertrand, M., & Kosatsky, T. (2017). Risk of Congenital Heart Defects after Ambient Heat Exposure Early in Pregnancy. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP171
5. Burns, P. A., & Mutunga, C. (2024). Addressing the Impact of Climate Change on Sexual and Reproductive Health Among Adolescent Girls and Young Women in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Global Health Science and Practice, 12(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-23-00374
6. Canelón, S. P., & Boland, M. R. (2020). A systematic literature review of factors affecting the timing of Menarche: The potential for climate change to impact women’s health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 6–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051703
7. Carré, J., Gatimel, N., Moreau, J., Parinaud, J., & Léandri, R. (2017). Does air pollution play a role in infertility?: a systematic review. Environmental Health, 16(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-017-0291-8
8. Chalupka, S. M., Latter, A., & Trombley, J. (2023). Climate and Environmental Change. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 48(4), 181–187. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMC.0000000000000924

9. Charlson, F., Ali, S., Benmarhnia, T., Pearl, M., Massazza, A., Augustinavicius, J., & Scott, J. G. (2021). Climate Change and Mental Health: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4486. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094486
10. Chevance, G., Fresán, U., Hekler, E., Edmondson, D., Lloyd, S. J., Ballester, J., Litt, J., Cvijanovic, I., Araújo-Soares, V., & Bernard, P. (2023). Thinking Health-related Behaviors in a Climate Change Context: A Narrative Review. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 57(3), 193–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaac039
11. Cianconi, P., Betrò, S., & Janiri, L. (2020). The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 490206.
12. Clayton, S. (2020). Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 74, 102263.
13. Das, A., Mall, M., Behera, B., Dash, R., Lenka, B., & Sahoo, S. (2025). The Impact of Climate Change and Environmental Stressors on Maternal Mental Health: A Narrative Review. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.88519
14. de Paula Freitas, B., de Oliveira Dias, J. R., Prazeres, J., Sacramento, G. A., Ko, A. I., Maia, M., & Belfort, R. (2016). Ocular Findings in Infants With Microcephaly Associated With Presumed Zika Virus Congenital Infection in Salvador, Brazil. JAMA Ophthalmology, 134(5), 529. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2016.0267
15. Desai, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Climate Change and Women’s Health: A Scoping Review. GeoHealth, 5(9). https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000386
16. deSouza, P. N., Shea, A. A., Vitzthum, V. J., Duarte, F., Hanly, C. G., Timmons, M., Huguelet, P., Sammel, M. D., Ratti, C., Braun, D., & Nethery, R. C. (2025). The effect of air pollution exposure on menstrual cycle health using self-reported data from a mobile health app: a prospective, observational study. The Lancet Planetary Health, 9(5), e364–e373. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(25)00080-4
17. Dimitrov, G. (2019). Effects of Climate change on Women. Research Review International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 4(5).
18. Dutheil, F., Comptour, A., Morlon, R., Mermillod, M., Pereira, B., Baker, J. S., Charkhabi, M., Clinchamps, M., & Bourdel, N. (2021). Autism spectrum disorder and air pollution: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Pollution, 278, 116856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116856
19. Gamble, J. L., Balbus, J., Berger, M., Bouye, K., Campbell, V., Chief, K., Conlon, K., Crimmins, A., Flanagan, B., Gonzalez-Maddux, C., Hallisey, E., Hutchins, S., Jantarasami, L., Khoury, S., Kiefer, M., Kolling, J., Lynn, K., Manangan, A., McDonald, M., … Wolkin, A. F. (2016). Ch. 9: Populations of Concern. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. https://doi.org/10.7930/J0Q81B0T
20. Girardi, G., & Bremer, A. A. (2024). Climate and environmental changes exacerbate health disparities in pregnant people and their offspring. How can we protect women and their babies? Birth Defects Research, 116(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/bdr2.2313
21. Godden, N. J., Farrant, B. M., Yallup Farrant, J., Heyink, E., Carot Collins, E., Burgemeister, B., Tabeshfar, M., Barrow, J., West, M., Kieft, J., Rothwell, M., Leviston, Z., Bailey, S., Blaise, M., & Cooper, T. (2021). Climate change, activism, and supporting the mental health of children and young people: Perspectives from Western Australia. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 57(11), 1759–1764. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.15649
22. Goldhagen, J. L., Shenoda, S., Oberg, C., Mercer, R., Kadir, A., Raman, S., Waterston, T., & Spencer, N. J. (2020). Rights, justice, and equity: a global agenda for child health and wellbeing. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 4(1), 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30346-3
23. Gore, A. C., Chappell, V. A., Fenton, S. E., Flaws, J. A., Nadal, A., Prins, G. S., Toppari, J., & Zoeller, R. T. (2015). EDC-2: The Endocrine Society’s Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals. Endocrine Reviews, 36(6), E1–E150. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2015-1010
24. Gostimirovic, M., Novakovic, R., Rajkovic, J., Djokic, V., Terzic, D., Putnik, S., & Gojkovic-Bukarica, L. (2020). The influence of climate change on human cardiovascular function. Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health, 75(7), 406–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338244.2020.1742079
25. Guxens, M., Lubczyńska, M. J., Muetzel, R. L., Dalmau-Bueno, A., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hoek, G., van der Lugt, A., Verhulst, F. C., White, T., Brunekreef, B., Tiemeier, H., & El Marroun, H. (2018). Air Pollution Exposure During Fetal Life, Brain Morphology, and Cognitive Function in School-Age Children. Biological Psychiatry, 84(4), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.01.016
26. Ha, S., Nguyen, K., Liu, D., Männistö, T., Nobles, C., Sherman, S., & Mendola, P. (2017). Ambient temperature and risk of cardiovascular events at labor and delivery: A case-crossover study. Environmental Research, 159, 622–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.010
27. Hayes, K., & Poland, B. (2018). Addressing Mental Health in a Changing Climate: Incorporating Mental Health Indicators into Climate Change and Health Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessments. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(9), 1806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091806
28. He, S., Kosatsky, T., Smargiassi, A., Bilodeau-Bertrand, M., & Auger, N. (2018). Heat and pregnancy-related emergencies: Risk of placental abruption during hot weather. Environment International, 111, 295–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.11.004
29. Helle, S., Helama, S., & Lertola, K. (2009). Evolutionary ecology of human birth sex ratio under the compound influence of climate change, famine, economic crises and wars. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78(6), 1226–1233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01598.x
30. Hiatt, R. A., & Beyeler, N. (2023). Women’s cancers and climate change. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 160(2), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.14407
31. Lawrance, E. L., Thompson, R., Newberry Le Vay, J., Page, L., & Jennings, N. (2022). The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence, and its Implications. International Review of Psychiatry, 34(5), 443–498. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2022.2128725
32. Logie, C. H., Lys, C. L., Mackay, K., MacNeill, N., Pauchulo, A., & Yasseen, A. S. (2019). Syndemic Factors Associated with Safer Sex Efficacy Among Northern and Indigenous Adolescents in Arctic Canada. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 26(4), 449–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-019-09797-0
33. Marí-Dell’Olmo, M., Tobías, A., Gómez-Gutiérrez, A., Rodríguez-Sanz, M., García de Olalla, P., Camprubí, E., Gasparrini, A., & Borrell, C. (2019). Social inequalities in the association between temperature and mortality in a South European context. International Journal of Public Health, 64(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-018-1094-6
34. Mazorra, J., Sánchez-Jacob, E., de la Sota, C., Fernández, L., & Lumbreras, J. (2020). A comprehensive analysis of cooking solutions co-benefits at household level: Healthy lives and well-being, gender and climate change. Science of The Total Environment, 707, 135968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135968
35. Nyadanu, S. D., Dunne, J., Tessema, G. A., Mullins, B., Kumi-Boateng, B., Bell, M. L., Duko, B., & Pereira, G. (2024). Maternal exposure to ambient air temperature and adverse birth outcomes: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Science of The Total Environment, 917, 170236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170236
36. Onyango, M. A., & Heidari, S. (2017). Care with dignity in humanitarian crises: ensuring sexual and reproductive health and rights of displaced populations. Reproductive Health Matters, 25(51), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/09688080.2017.1411093
37. Oyeyipo, I. P., Linde, M. van der, & Plessis, S. S. du. (2017). Environmental Exposure of Sperm Sex-Chromosomes: A Gender Selection Technique. Toxicological Research, 33(4), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.5487/TR.2017.33.4.315
38. Papadiochou, A., Diamanti, A., Metallinou, D., Georgakopoulou, V. E., Taskou, C., Kagkouras, I., & Sarantaki, A. (2024). Impact of Climate Change on Reproductive Health and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Systematic Review. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.68221
39. Pappas, A., Kovats, S., & Ranganathan, M. (2024). Extreme weather events and maternal health in low-income and middle-income countries: a scoping review. BMJ Open, 14(6), e079361. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-079361
40. Parent, A.-S., Damdimopoulou, P., Johansson, H. K. L., Bouftas, N., Draskau, M. K., Franssen, D., Fudvoye, J., van Duursen, M., & Svingen, T. (2025). Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and female reproductive health: a growing concern. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 21(10), 593–607. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-025-01131-x
41. Patel, S. K., Agrawal, G., Mathew, B., Patel, S., Mohanty, B., & Singh, A. (2020). Climate change and women in South Asia: a review and future policy implications. World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 17(2), 145–166. https://doi.org/10.1108/WJSTSD-10-2018-0059
42. Pope, D. H., McMullen, H., Baschieri, A., Philipose, A., Udeh, C., Diallo, J., & McCoy, D. (2022). What is the current evidence for the relationship between the climate and environmental crises and child marriage? A scoping review. Global Public Health, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2022.2095655
43. Ravindra, K., Chanana, N., & Mor, S. (2021). Exposure to air pollutants and risk of congenital anomalies: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Science of The Total Environment, 765, 142772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142772
44. Rezwana, N., & Pain, R. (2021). Gender-based violence before, during, and after cyclones: slow violence and layered disasters. Disasters, 45(4), 741–761. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12441
45. Sarwar, G. M., & Khan, M. H. (2007). Sea Level Rise. A Threat to the Coast of Bangladesh. Internationales Asienforum, 38(3–4).
46. Schmitt, M. L., Clatworthy, D., Ratnayake, R., Klaesener-Metzner, N., Roesch, E., Wheeler, E., & Sommer, M. (2017). Understanding the menstrual hygiene management challenges facing displaced girls and women: findings from qualitative assessments in Myanmar and Lebanon. Conflict and Health, 11(1), 19.
47. Singh, N. S., Aryasinghe, S., Smith, J., Khosla, R., Say, L., & Blanchet, K. (2018). A long way to go: A systematic review to assess the utilisation of sexual and reproductive health services during humanitarian crises. BMJ Global Health, 3(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000682
48. Stein, R. A., Grayon, A., Katz, A., & Chervenak, F. A. (2022). The Zika virus: an opportunity to revisit reproductive health needs and disparities. Germs, 12(4), 519–537. https://doi.org/10.18683/germs.2022.1357
49. UNICEF. (2018). FAST FACTS: Nine things you didn’t know about menstruation. Erişim Linki: https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/fast-facts-nine-things-you-didnt-know-about-menstruation#_edn2
50. UNICEF. (2023). Climate Change: Impact on Adolescent Girls. Erişim Linki: https://www.unicef.org/mena/reports/climate-change-impact-adolescent-girls
51. UNICEF. (2024). Adolescents. Erişim Linki: https://data.unicef.org/topic/adolescents/overview/
52. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2020). Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in the UN Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework. 70.
53. Vallianou, N. G., Geladari, E. V., Kounatidis, D., Geladari, C. V., Stratigou, T., Dourakis, S. P., Andreadis, E. A., & Dalamaga, M. (2021). Diabetes mellitus in the era of climate change. Diabetes & Metabolism, 47(4), 101205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabet.2020.10.003
54. van Nieuwenhuizen, A., Hudson, K., Chen, X., & Hwong, A. R. (2021). The Effects of Climate Change on Child and Adolescent Mental Health: Clinical Considerations. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(12), 88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-021-01296-y Weeda, L. J. Z., Bradshaw, C. J. A., Judge, M. A., Saraswati, C. M., & Le Souëf, P. N. (2024). How climate change degrades child health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Science of The Total Environment, 920, 170944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170944 Weiser, S. D., Young, S. L., Cohen, C. R., Kushel, M. B., Tsai, A. C., Tien, P. C., Hatcher, A. M., Frongillo, E. A., & Bangsberg, D. R. (2011). Conceptual framework for understanding the bidirectional links between food insecurity and HIV/AIDS. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94(6). https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.012070
55. WHO. (2014). Gender, climate change and health. Erişim Linki: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241508186. Erişim Tarihi: 12.08.2025.
56. WHO. (2024). Adolescent pregnancy. Erişim Linki: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy. Erişim Tarihi: 20.05.2026
57. Yu, P., Xu, R., Li, S., Coelho, M. S. Z. S., Saldiva, P. H. N., Sim, M. R., Abramson, M. J., & Guo, Y. (2022). Associations between long-term exposure to PM2.5 and site-specific cancer mortality: A nationwide study in Brazil between 2010 and 2018. Environmental Pollution, 302, 119070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119070
58. Yüzen, D., Graf, I., Diemert, A., & Arck, P. C. (2023). Climate change and pregnancy complications: From hormones to the immune response. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1149284
59. Zeid, S., Gilmore, K., Khosla, R., Papowitz, H., Engel, D., Dakkak, H., Rahab, N., Sharma, A., & Fair, M. (2015). Women’s, children’s, and adolescents’ health in humanitarian and other crises. BMJ, h4346. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4346
60. Zhang, W., Spero, T. L., Nolte, C. G., Garcia, V. C., Lin, Z., Romitti, P. A., Shaw, G. M., Sheridan, S. C., Feldkamp, M. L., Woomert, A., Hwang, S., Fisher, S. C., Browne, M. L., Hao, Y., Lin, S., Hobbs, C., Carmichael, S., Reefhuis, J., Tinker, S., … Botto, L. (2019). Projected Changes in Maternal Heat Exposure During Early Pregnancy and the Associated Congenital Heart Defect Burden in the United States. Journal of the American Heart Association, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.118.010995
61. Zuelsdorff, M., & Limaye, V. S. (2024). A Framework for Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Dementia Risk and Burden. The Gerontologist, 64(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad082