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Belleği ve Kimliği Geri Kazanmak: Sami Kadınların Birinci Şahıs Belgeselleri

Yıl 2022, , 392 - 423, 26.09.2022
https://doi.org/10.18691/kulturveiletisim.1126237

Öz

Fenno-İskandinavya’da Sapmi adı verilen bölgede yaşayan Samiler, UNESCO tarafından Avrupa’nın tek Yerli halkı olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Sami halkı uzun yıllar yerleşimci toplumların baskısı altında yaşamış, ulus devletlerin kurulmasıyla toprakları İsveç, Norveç, Finlandiya ve Rusya sınırları arasında bölünmüştür. Yirminci yüzyılın ortalarına kadar devam eden medenileştirme adı altındaki asimilasyon süreci, Sami halkına ve kültürüne büyük zarar vermiştir. Pek çok Sami’nin Yerli kültüründen utanç duymasına, kimliğini reddetmesine yol açan asimilasyon sürecinde kilise ve eğitim kurumları büyük rol oynamıştır. Yatılı okullarda eğitim alan, anadillerini konuşmaları yasaklanan çocuklar, ailelerinin desteğinden uzakta ırkçı ilkelere göre düzenlenmiş bir eğitime tabi tutulmuşlardır. Küresel Yerli hareketinin etkisiyle 1970’lerden itibaren güç kazanan Sami hareketi, ulus devletlerin asimilasyon politikalarına son vermek için politik zeminde mücadele verirken kültürel canlandırma süreciyle kültürel belleği onarmayı amaçlamıştır. Kültürel canlandırma sürecinin bir parçası olarak ortaya çıkan Sami sineması, ana akım medyada aşağılayıcı klişelerle temsil edilen Samilerin, öykülerini ve tarihlerini kendi perspektiflerinden anlatma, temsillerinin kontrolünü geri alma girişimidir. Çalışmada ele alınan Sami kadın yönetmenlerin birinci şahıs belgeselleri, Sami Daughter Yoik, Suddenly Sami, My Family Portrait ve Rebel; resmi tarihin görmezden geldiği asimilasyon sürecini, ebeveynleri yatılı okul travmasına maruz kalmış kadın yönetmenlerin gözünden anlatır. Bu filmler, aile albümlerinin, arşiv belgelerinin, kişisel tanıklıkların birleştirilmesi yoluyla Sami kolektif belleğini onarır, karşı-anlatılar inşa eder.

Kaynakça

  • Brunow, Dagmar (2015). Remediating Transcultural Memory. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  • Coates, Jennifer (2013). Women, Men and Everyday Talk. UK: Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Cocq, Coppélie (2014). “The Hybrid Emergence of Sami Expressive Culture.” Hybrid Media Culture: Sensing Place in a World of Flows. Simon Lindgren (der.) içinde. New York: Routledge. 51-66.
  • Eidheim, Harald (1997). “Ethno-Political Development Among the Sami After World War II.”. Sami Culture in a New Era: The Norwegian Sami Experience. Harald Gaski (der.) içinde. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.
  • Erll, Astrid ve Rigney, Ann (2009). “Introduction: Cultural Memory and its Dynamics.” Mediation, Remediation, and the Dynamics of Cultural Memory. Astrid Erll, Ann Rigney (der.) içinde. Berlin: de Gruyter. 1-11.
  • Garner, Steve (2014). “Injured Nations, Racialising States and Repressed Histories: Making Whiteness Visible in the Nordic Countries.” Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 20(6): 407-422.
  • Gaski, Harald (1993). “The Sami People: The ‘White Indians’ of Scandinavia.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 17(1): 115-128.
  • Gaski, Lina (2008). “Sami Identity as a Discursive Formation: Essentialism and Ambivalence”. Indigenous Peoples: Self-determination Knowledge Indigeneity. Henry Minde (der.) içinde. NL: Eburon. 219-236.
  • Gaski, Harald (1997).“Sami Culture in a New Era.” http://www.laits.utexas.edu. Erişim tarihi: 15.10.2021.
  • Halbwachs, Maurice (1980). The Collective Memory. Çev., Francis J. Ditter, Jr. ve Vida Yazdi Ditter. NY: Harper Colophon Books.
  • Heith, Anne (2010). “Reviews: Vuokko Hirvonen, Voices from Sapmi. Sami Women’s Path to Authorship.” Journal Of Northern Studies,1: 127–132.
  • Heith, Anne (2016). “Putting an End to the Shame Associated with Minority Culture and its Concomitant Negative Self-Images – On Gender and Ethnicity in Sami and Tornedalian Literature.” Nordic Women’s Literature Online http://nordicwomensliterature.net. Erişim tarihi: 24.02.2022.
  • Heith, Anne (2018). “Indigeneity and Whiteness: Reading Carpentaria and The Sun, My Father in the Context of Globalization.” Indigenous Transnationalism. Lynda Ng (der.) içinde. Australia: Giramondo Publishing. 93-117.
  • Helander, Elina ve Kailo, Kaarina (1998). No Beginning No End: The Sami Speak Up. Finland: The University of Alberta Press, Nordic Sami Institute.
  • Hübinette, Tobias ve Lundström, Catrin (2014). “Three Phases of Hegemonic Whiteness: Understanding Racial Temporalities in Sweden.” Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 20(6): 423-437.
  • Iggers, George G. (2011). Yirminci Yüzyılda Tarihyazımı. Çev., Gül Çağalı Güven. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları.
  • Kääpä, Pietari (2014). Ecology and Contemporary Nordic Cinemas: From Nation-building to Ecocosmopolitanism. NY: Bloomsbury Academic.
  • Kääpä, Pietari (2015). “Northern Exposures and Marginal Critiques: The Politics of Sovereignty in Sami Cinema.” Films On Ice: Cinemas of the Arctic Scott MacKenzie and Anna Westerstahl (der.) içinde. UK: Edinburgh University Press. 45-58.
  • Kääpä, Pietari (2017). “Cyclical Conceptualizations of Time: Ecocritical Perspectives on Sámi Film Culture.” Ecocriticism and Indigenous Studies: Conversations from Earth to Cosmos. Salma Monani, Joni Adamson (der.) içinde. NY: Routledge. 136-153.
  • Kuokkanen, Rauna (2003). “‘Survivance’ in Sami and First Nations Boarding School Narratives.” American Indian Quarterly. 27 (3-4): 697-726.
  • Lane, Jim (2002). The Autobiographical Documentary in America. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • LaRocque, Emma (2010). When the Other is Me: Native Resistance Discourse 1850-1990. Manitoba: University of Manitoba Press.
  • Lebow, Alisa (2012). “Introduction by Alisa Lebow.” The Cinema of Me: The Self and Subjectivity in First Person Documentary. Alisa Lebow (der.) içinde. Colombia: Columbia University Press. 21-38.
  • Lehtinen, Ari Aukusti (2012). “Politics of decoupling: breaks between Indigenous and imported senses of the Nordic North.” Journal of Cultural Geography, 29(1): 105-123.
  • Lien, Sigrid ve Nielssen, Hilde W. (2021). “Introduction: Coloniality, Indigeneity, and Photography.” Adjusting the Lens: Indigenous Activism, Colonial Legacies, and Photographic Heritage. Sigrid Lien, Hilde W. Nielssen (der.) içinde. Vancouver: UBC Press. 3-20.
  • MacKenzie, Scott ve Stenport, Anna W. (2016). “Contemporary experimental feminist Sami documentary: The first person politics of Liselotte Wajstedt and Elle-Maija Tailfeathers.” Journal of Scandinavian Cinema, 6 (2): 69-182.
  • Marks, Laura U. (2000). The Skin of the Film: Intercultural Cinema, Embodiment, and the Senses. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Mecsei, Monica K. (2015). “Cultural Stereotypes and Negotiations in Sami Cinema.” Films On Ice: Cinemas of the Arctic. Scott MacKenzie and Anna Westerstahl (der.) içinde. UK: Edinburgh University Press. 72-83.
  • Meyers, Diana T. (2002). Gender in the Mirror: Cultural Imagery and Women's Agency. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Minde, Henry (2005). "Assimilation of the Sami: Implementation and Consequences." Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (APRCi). 196. Erişim tarihi: 24.09.2020.
  • Mirzoeff, Nicholas (2011). The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality. Durham & London: Duke University Press.
  • Misztal, Barbara A. (2003). Theories of Social Remembering. PA: Open University Press.
  • Moffat, Kate (2018). “Bodies in Transition: Somatechnics and the Experimental Art of Liselotte Wajstedt’s Sami Nieida Jojk.” Somatechnics, 8(1): 48–63.
  • Myrdahl, Ellen M. (2014). “Recuperating whiteness in the injured nation: Norwegian identity inthe response to 22 July.” Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 20(6): 486-500.
  • Nyyssönen, Jukka (2013). “Sami Counter-Narratives of Colonial Finland. Articulation, Reception and the Boundaries of the Politically Possible.” Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies, 30 (1): 101-121.
  • Pietikäinen, Sari (2001). “On the Fringe: News Representations of the Sami.” Social Identities, 7(4): 637-657.
  • Renov, Michael (2004). The Subject Of Documentary. MN: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Rieser, Klaus (2020). “First-Person Documentary Film and Self-Life Narration”. JAAAS: Journal of the Austrian Association for American Studies, 1(1):144-147.
  • Salvesen, Helge (1995). “Sami Ædnan: Four States-One Nation? Nordic Minority Policy and The History of the Sami.” Ethnicity and Nation Building in the Nordic World. Sven Tagil (der.) içinde. Carbondale, Ill. Southern Illinois Univ. Press. 106-144.
  • Şen, Aygün (2021). “Sibel: Ateşi Yakmak ve Dişil Soykütüğü.” Türk Sinemasında Kadınlık Halleri. Meral Serarslan (der.) içinde. Konya: Literatürk Academia. 115-158.
  • Şen, Aygün (2022). “İskandinav Beyazlığı ve Yerli Kimliğin Reddi: Sameblod.” Nordik Sinema. Elif Demoğlu, Ekin Gündüz Özdemirci (der.) içinde. İstanbul: Doğu Kitabevi. 111-146.
  • Trosterud, Trond (2008). “Language Assimilation During the Modernisation Process: Experiences from Norway and North-West Russia.” Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies, 25(2): 93-112.
  • Tuhiwai-Smith, Linda (2021). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. GB: Zed Books.
  • Webb, Sharon (2006). “Making Museums, Making People: The Representation of the Sámi Through Material Culture.” Public Archaeology, 5(3): 167-183.
  • Woolf, Virginia (1929). A Room For One’s Own. UK: Hogarth Press.

Reclaiming Memory and Identity: First Person Documentaries by Sami Women

Yıl 2022, , 392 - 423, 26.09.2022
https://doi.org/10.18691/kulturveiletisim.1126237

Öz

Inhabiting the region of Sapmi in Finno-Scandinavia, the Sami are recognized by UNESCO as the only Indigenous people of Europe. They have been oppressed by settler states for a long time, and their lands, with the establishment of nation-states, were divided between the borders of Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia. Assimilation process, which was conducted under the guise of civilization, lasted until the mid-twentieth century and did great harm to both Sami people and their culture. Educational institutions and the church played a crucial role in the assimilation process during which many Sami came to feel ashamed of their İndigenous culture and to reject their identity. Forbidden to speak their native language at boarding schools, the Sami children, also away from family support, were subjected to racist education. Beginning from 1970s, the Sami movement has been empowered with the effect of Global Indigenous Movement. It has struggled on political grounds to put an end to assimilation policies of nation-states, aiming, meanwhile, at restoring cultural memory through cultural revitalization. The Sami cinema emerged as a part of cultural revitalization process, and since they are represented with derogatory stereotypes in mainstream media, to reclaim control over their own representation, it endeavors to tell stories and histories of the Sami from their own perspectives. The first-person documentaries, namely Sami Daughter Yoik, Suddenly Sami, My Family Portrait, and Rebel, give an account of assimilation process through the eyes of women directors whose parents were exposed to boarding school trauma. This process is disregarded by official history. Bringing together family photo albums, archival documents, and personal testimonies, these films restore the Sami’s collective memory and weaving counter-narratives.

Kaynakça

  • Brunow, Dagmar (2015). Remediating Transcultural Memory. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  • Coates, Jennifer (2013). Women, Men and Everyday Talk. UK: Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Cocq, Coppélie (2014). “The Hybrid Emergence of Sami Expressive Culture.” Hybrid Media Culture: Sensing Place in a World of Flows. Simon Lindgren (der.) içinde. New York: Routledge. 51-66.
  • Eidheim, Harald (1997). “Ethno-Political Development Among the Sami After World War II.”. Sami Culture in a New Era: The Norwegian Sami Experience. Harald Gaski (der.) içinde. Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.
  • Erll, Astrid ve Rigney, Ann (2009). “Introduction: Cultural Memory and its Dynamics.” Mediation, Remediation, and the Dynamics of Cultural Memory. Astrid Erll, Ann Rigney (der.) içinde. Berlin: de Gruyter. 1-11.
  • Garner, Steve (2014). “Injured Nations, Racialising States and Repressed Histories: Making Whiteness Visible in the Nordic Countries.” Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 20(6): 407-422.
  • Gaski, Harald (1993). “The Sami People: The ‘White Indians’ of Scandinavia.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 17(1): 115-128.
  • Gaski, Lina (2008). “Sami Identity as a Discursive Formation: Essentialism and Ambivalence”. Indigenous Peoples: Self-determination Knowledge Indigeneity. Henry Minde (der.) içinde. NL: Eburon. 219-236.
  • Gaski, Harald (1997).“Sami Culture in a New Era.” http://www.laits.utexas.edu. Erişim tarihi: 15.10.2021.
  • Halbwachs, Maurice (1980). The Collective Memory. Çev., Francis J. Ditter, Jr. ve Vida Yazdi Ditter. NY: Harper Colophon Books.
  • Heith, Anne (2010). “Reviews: Vuokko Hirvonen, Voices from Sapmi. Sami Women’s Path to Authorship.” Journal Of Northern Studies,1: 127–132.
  • Heith, Anne (2016). “Putting an End to the Shame Associated with Minority Culture and its Concomitant Negative Self-Images – On Gender and Ethnicity in Sami and Tornedalian Literature.” Nordic Women’s Literature Online http://nordicwomensliterature.net. Erişim tarihi: 24.02.2022.
  • Heith, Anne (2018). “Indigeneity and Whiteness: Reading Carpentaria and The Sun, My Father in the Context of Globalization.” Indigenous Transnationalism. Lynda Ng (der.) içinde. Australia: Giramondo Publishing. 93-117.
  • Helander, Elina ve Kailo, Kaarina (1998). No Beginning No End: The Sami Speak Up. Finland: The University of Alberta Press, Nordic Sami Institute.
  • Hübinette, Tobias ve Lundström, Catrin (2014). “Three Phases of Hegemonic Whiteness: Understanding Racial Temporalities in Sweden.” Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 20(6): 423-437.
  • Iggers, George G. (2011). Yirminci Yüzyılda Tarihyazımı. Çev., Gül Çağalı Güven. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları.
  • Kääpä, Pietari (2014). Ecology and Contemporary Nordic Cinemas: From Nation-building to Ecocosmopolitanism. NY: Bloomsbury Academic.
  • Kääpä, Pietari (2015). “Northern Exposures and Marginal Critiques: The Politics of Sovereignty in Sami Cinema.” Films On Ice: Cinemas of the Arctic Scott MacKenzie and Anna Westerstahl (der.) içinde. UK: Edinburgh University Press. 45-58.
  • Kääpä, Pietari (2017). “Cyclical Conceptualizations of Time: Ecocritical Perspectives on Sámi Film Culture.” Ecocriticism and Indigenous Studies: Conversations from Earth to Cosmos. Salma Monani, Joni Adamson (der.) içinde. NY: Routledge. 136-153.
  • Kuokkanen, Rauna (2003). “‘Survivance’ in Sami and First Nations Boarding School Narratives.” American Indian Quarterly. 27 (3-4): 697-726.
  • Lane, Jim (2002). The Autobiographical Documentary in America. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
  • LaRocque, Emma (2010). When the Other is Me: Native Resistance Discourse 1850-1990. Manitoba: University of Manitoba Press.
  • Lebow, Alisa (2012). “Introduction by Alisa Lebow.” The Cinema of Me: The Self and Subjectivity in First Person Documentary. Alisa Lebow (der.) içinde. Colombia: Columbia University Press. 21-38.
  • Lehtinen, Ari Aukusti (2012). “Politics of decoupling: breaks between Indigenous and imported senses of the Nordic North.” Journal of Cultural Geography, 29(1): 105-123.
  • Lien, Sigrid ve Nielssen, Hilde W. (2021). “Introduction: Coloniality, Indigeneity, and Photography.” Adjusting the Lens: Indigenous Activism, Colonial Legacies, and Photographic Heritage. Sigrid Lien, Hilde W. Nielssen (der.) içinde. Vancouver: UBC Press. 3-20.
  • MacKenzie, Scott ve Stenport, Anna W. (2016). “Contemporary experimental feminist Sami documentary: The first person politics of Liselotte Wajstedt and Elle-Maija Tailfeathers.” Journal of Scandinavian Cinema, 6 (2): 69-182.
  • Marks, Laura U. (2000). The Skin of the Film: Intercultural Cinema, Embodiment, and the Senses. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Mecsei, Monica K. (2015). “Cultural Stereotypes and Negotiations in Sami Cinema.” Films On Ice: Cinemas of the Arctic. Scott MacKenzie and Anna Westerstahl (der.) içinde. UK: Edinburgh University Press. 72-83.
  • Meyers, Diana T. (2002). Gender in the Mirror: Cultural Imagery and Women's Agency. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Minde, Henry (2005). "Assimilation of the Sami: Implementation and Consequences." Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (APRCi). 196. Erişim tarihi: 24.09.2020.
  • Mirzoeff, Nicholas (2011). The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality. Durham & London: Duke University Press.
  • Misztal, Barbara A. (2003). Theories of Social Remembering. PA: Open University Press.
  • Moffat, Kate (2018). “Bodies in Transition: Somatechnics and the Experimental Art of Liselotte Wajstedt’s Sami Nieida Jojk.” Somatechnics, 8(1): 48–63.
  • Myrdahl, Ellen M. (2014). “Recuperating whiteness in the injured nation: Norwegian identity inthe response to 22 July.” Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 20(6): 486-500.
  • Nyyssönen, Jukka (2013). “Sami Counter-Narratives of Colonial Finland. Articulation, Reception and the Boundaries of the Politically Possible.” Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies, 30 (1): 101-121.
  • Pietikäinen, Sari (2001). “On the Fringe: News Representations of the Sami.” Social Identities, 7(4): 637-657.
  • Renov, Michael (2004). The Subject Of Documentary. MN: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Rieser, Klaus (2020). “First-Person Documentary Film and Self-Life Narration”. JAAAS: Journal of the Austrian Association for American Studies, 1(1):144-147.
  • Salvesen, Helge (1995). “Sami Ædnan: Four States-One Nation? Nordic Minority Policy and The History of the Sami.” Ethnicity and Nation Building in the Nordic World. Sven Tagil (der.) içinde. Carbondale, Ill. Southern Illinois Univ. Press. 106-144.
  • Şen, Aygün (2021). “Sibel: Ateşi Yakmak ve Dişil Soykütüğü.” Türk Sinemasında Kadınlık Halleri. Meral Serarslan (der.) içinde. Konya: Literatürk Academia. 115-158.
  • Şen, Aygün (2022). “İskandinav Beyazlığı ve Yerli Kimliğin Reddi: Sameblod.” Nordik Sinema. Elif Demoğlu, Ekin Gündüz Özdemirci (der.) içinde. İstanbul: Doğu Kitabevi. 111-146.
  • Trosterud, Trond (2008). “Language Assimilation During the Modernisation Process: Experiences from Norway and North-West Russia.” Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies, 25(2): 93-112.
  • Tuhiwai-Smith, Linda (2021). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. GB: Zed Books.
  • Webb, Sharon (2006). “Making Museums, Making People: The Representation of the Sámi Through Material Culture.” Public Archaeology, 5(3): 167-183.
  • Woolf, Virginia (1929). A Room For One’s Own. UK: Hogarth Press.
Toplam 45 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Radyo-Televizyon, Kadın Araştırmaları
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Aygün Şen 0000-0002-6438-1426

Yayımlanma Tarihi 26 Eylül 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022

Kaynak Göster

APA Şen, A. (2022). Belleği ve Kimliği Geri Kazanmak: Sami Kadınların Birinci Şahıs Belgeselleri. Kültür Ve İletişim, 25 (2)(50), 392-423. https://doi.org/10.18691/kulturveiletisim.1126237