Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

İnfodemi, Korku ve Dezenformasyon: Pandemi Döneminde Sosyal Medyada İslamofobi

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 1 Sayı: 1 - Göç ve Afet, 17 - 34, 09.10.2023

Öz

Pandeminin yaratmış olduğu belirsizlik ortamı; medikal, ekonomik, kültürel ve siyasi problemlerin yanı sıra yabancı düşmanlığı, sinofobi, antisemitizm ve İslamofobi gibi kültürel ırkçı ideolojilerin yayılmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Pandemi döneminde yayılan sadece virüs olmamış aynı zamanda yanlış bilgiler ve dezenformasyon da salgınla eş zamanlı yayılarak pandemiyle birlikte infodemiye yol açmıştır. Müslümanlara yönelik nefret suçları pandemi öncesinde hem çevrim dışı hem de çevrim içi platformlarda artarken pandemi döneminde de Müslümanların Batı’da ve Güney Asya’da yaşamış oldukları akademide pek çok farklı bağlamda tartışılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada pandemi döneminde sosyal medyada İslamofobinin hangi yollarla ve nasıl gerçekleştiği incelenmeye çalışılacaktır. Çevrim içi İslamofobik nefret, sosyal medya platformlarındaki düzenlemelerle engellenmeye çalışılsa da halihazırda dijital ortamda en çok görülen nefret söylemlerinin başında gelmektedir. Bu durum tüm dünyayı etkisi altına alan pandemi döneminde de Müslümanlar hakkında dezenformasyon, etiketler ve memler gibi farklı biçimlerde kendisini göstermektedir. Çalışmada öncelikle Müslümanlara yönelik nefret suçlarına değinilecek, sonrasında yeni medyadaki örtük ve açık İslamofobik örnekler incelenerek sosyal medyada ve dijital dünyada yer alan İslamofobik içeriklerin farklı tekniklerle yayılması ele alınacaktır.

Kaynakça

  • Abdelaziz, Rowaida. “Anti-Muslim Propaganda Is Seeping Into Online Discourse About The Coronavirus,” Huffpost, 10 Nisan 2020. Erişim 04 Ekim 2021. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/anti-muslim-propaganda-is-seeping-into-coronavirus-coverage_n_5e90b721c5b624efd9a27fab
  • Abdou, L. H., Bale, T. ve Geddes, A. P. “Centre-right parties and immigration in an era of politicisation,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48, sayı: 2 (2022): 327-340. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1853901
  • Abu-Ras, W. M., Suarez, Z. E. “Muslim Men and Women’s Perception of Discrimination, Hate Crimes, and PTSD Symptoms Post 9/11,” Traumatology 15, sayı: 3 (2009): 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765609342281
  • Al-Qazzaz, Khaled. “Islamophobia is on the rise during COVID-19,” Policy Options, 1 Ekim 2020. Erişim 10 Ocak 2021. https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2020/islamophobia-is-on-the-rise-during-covid-19/
  • Awan, I., Khan-Williams, R. “Research Briefing Report 2020: Coronavirus, Fear and How Islamophobia Spreads on Social Media,” Erişim 12 Ocak 2021. https://antimuslimhatredworkinggrouphome.files.wordpress.com/2020/04/research-briefing-report-7-1.pdf Bähre, Erik. “Dutch superiority the cause of so many Covid-19 infections?”, leidenanthropologyblog, 20 Ekim 2020, Erişim 22 Mart 2022. https://www.leidenanthropologyblog.nl/articles/dutch-superiority-the-cause-of-so-many-covid-19-infections
  • Balcı, A., Cicioğlu, F. “Turkey in the discourse of European far right: the uses and abuses of Turkey’s membership process for a counter-hegemony,” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 28, sayı: 1 (2020): 100-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2019.1677574
  • British Medical Association. “COVID-19: the risk to BAME doctors”. Erişim 10 Ocak 2021. https://www.bma.org.uk/adviceand-support/covid-19/your-health/covid-19-therisk-to-bame-doctors
  • Castaño-Pulgarín, S. A., Suárez-Betancur, N., Vega, L. M. T. ve López, H. M. H. “Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 58, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101608.
  • Challies, D. M., Hunt, M., Garry, M. ve Harper, D. N. “Whatever Gave You That Idea? False Memories Following Equivalence Training: A Behavioral Account Of The Misinformation Effect,” Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 96, (2011): 343-362. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.2011.96-343
  • Conway, M. “Determining the role of the Internet in violent extremism and terrorism: six suggestions for progressing research,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 25, (2016): 77–98.
  • Darius, P. ve Stephany, F. “Hashjacking” the Debate: Polarisation Strategies of Germany’s Political Far-Right on Twitter. In, et al. Social Informatics. SocInfo 2019. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11864. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34971-4_21
  • Davison, Patrick. “The Language of Internet Memes”, The Social Media Reader, New York: New York University Press, 2012: 120–134.
  • Dodd, Vikran. “Met police twice as likely to fine black people over lockdown breaches – research,” The Guardian. 03 Haziran 2020. Erişim 10 Eylül 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/jun/03/met-police-twice-as-likely-to-fine-black-people-over-lockdown-breaches-research
  • ECRI. “ECRI Report On Austria (Sixth Monitoring Cycle),” 7 Nisan 2020. Erişim 10 Eylül 2021. https://rm.coe.int/report-on-austria-6th-monitoring-cycle-/16809e826f
  • Erdoğan, Emre, Uyan Semerci, Pınar, Eyolcu Kafalı, Bilnur ve Çaytaş, Şaban. İnfodemi ve Bilgi Düzensizlikleri: Kavramlar, Nedenler ve Çözümler. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2022.
  • Eskicioğlu, Y. C. “İslamofobik Nefret Söylemi Aracı Olarak "Mem"ler,” TRT Akademi 7, sayı: 15 (2022): 702-731. https://doi.org/10.37679/trta.1101280
  • Euronews. “Hindistan'da Covid-19'u yaymakla suçlanan Müslümanlar bazı hastanelere alınmıyor,” 25 Nisan 2020. Erişim 10 Aralık 2020. https://tr.euronews.com/2020/04/25/hindistanda-covid-19-u-yaymakla-suclanan-muslumanlar-baz-hastanelere-alinmiyor
  • Fox, J., Cruz, C. ve Lee, J. Y. “Perpetuating online sexism offline: Anonymity, interactivity, and the effects of sexist hashtags on social media,” Computers in Human Behavior 52, (2015): 436-442, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.024
  • Gamir-Ríos J., Tarullo, R. ve Ibáńez-Cuquerella, M. “Multimodal disinformation about otherness on the internet. The spread of racist, xenophobic and islamophobic fake news in 2020,” Anàlisi 64, (2021): 49–64.
  • Gölcü, A., Çuhadar, M. "Batı Toplumlarında İslamofobi’nin Üretilmesinde Medyanın Rolü," Ombudsman Akademik 7, (2017): 71-99.
  • Hakoköngäs, E. Halmesvaara, O. ve Sakki, I. “Persuasion Through Bitter Humor: Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Rhetoric in Internet Memes of Two Far-Right Groups in Finland,” Social Media + Society 6, sayı: 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120921575
  • Hashmi, S., Khan, M. H. ve Amer, M. “Islamophobic Discourses in India During COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case of Tablighi Jamaat,” Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2023.2198537
  • Herman, Edward S. ve Chomsky, Noam. Medya Halka Nasıl Evet Dedirtir. İstanbul: Minerva Yayınları, 1999.
  • Hopyar, Z. “Covid-19 Sürecinde Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizlikleri: Birleşik Krallık Örneği,” Akademik Düşünce Dergisi 4, (2021): 90-106. https://doi.org/10.53507/akademikdusunce.913572
  • Horsti, K. “Digital Islamophobia: The Swedish woman as a figure of pure and dangerous whiteness,” New Media & Society 19, sayı: 9 (2017): 1440–1457. https://doi. org/10.1177/1461444816642169
  • Kalın, İbrahim. "İslamofobi ve Çokkültürlülüğün Sınırları", Bir Korku ve Nefret Söylemi Olarak İslamofobi, içinde ed. John L. Esposito ve İbrahim Kalın. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2018.
  • Knobel, M., Lankshear, C. "Online memes, affinities, and cultural production," A new literacies sampler 29, (2007): 199-227.
  • Kruglanski, A., Jasko, K., Webber, D., Chernikova, M. ve Molinario, E. “The Making of Violent Extremists,” Review of General Psychology 22, sayı:1 (2018): 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000144
  • Marwick, Alice ve Lewis, Rebecca. “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online,” Data & Society Research Institute, 2017.
  • Mujahidin, M. S. "Islamophobia and allegations against corona virus spread by Muslim minority in India," AJIS 6, sayı:2 (2021): 217.
  • Nagar, I., Gill, S. “Head is Where the Herd is: Fake News and Effect of Online Social Conformity on Islamophobia in Indians,” Social Sciences & Humanities Open, (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3651297 Nissenbaum, A., Shifman, L. “Internet memes as contested cultural capital: The case of 4chan’s /b/ board,” New Media & Society 19, sayı: 4 (2017): 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815609313
  • Office for National Statistics. “Coronavirus (COVID-19) related deaths by religious group, England and Wales: 2 March to 15 May 2020.” Erişim 10 Ocak 2021. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/articles/coronaviruscovid19relateddeathsbyreligiousgro upenglandandwales/2marchto15may2020
  • OSCE. “Hate Crime Laws.” Erişim 13 Aralık 2021. https://www.osce.org/odihr/36426 OSCE. “Hate Crime Against Muslims.” Erişim 13 Aralık 2021. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/1/6/373441_1.pdf
  • OSCE. “What is Hate Crime.” Erişim 13 Aralık 2021. https://hatecrime.osce.org/ Parveen, Nazia. “Police investigate UK far-right groups over anti-Muslim coronavirus claims,” The Guardian, 05 Nisan 2020. Erişim 15 Ocak 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/police-investigate-uk-far-right-groups-over-anti-muslim-coronavirus-claims
  • Perrigo, Billy. “It Was Already Dangerous to Be Muslim in India. Then Came the Coronavirus,” Time, 03 Nisan 2020. Erişim 20 Eylül 2022. https://time.com/5815264/coronavirus-india-islamophobia-coronajihad/
  • Poole, E., Haifa, G. E. ve de Quincey, E. “Tactical interventions in online hate speech: The case of #stopIslam,” New Media & Society 23, sayı: 6 (2021): 1415–1442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820903319
  • Poole, E., Williamson, M. “Disrupting or reconfiguring racist narratives about Muslims? The representation of British Muslims during the Covid crisis,” Journalism 24, sayı: 2 (2023): 262–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211030129
  • Runnymede Trust. Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All: Report of the Runnymede Trust Commission On British Muslims and Islamophobia. London: Runnymede Trust, 1997.
  • Tauscher, Soner. “Islamophobia in Germany: National Report 2020”, European Islamophobia Report 2020, içinde ed. Enes Bayraklı ve Farid Hafez, Viyana, Leopold Weiss Institute, 2021: 353-393.
  • Thorneycroft, R., Asquith, N. L. “The Dark Figure of Disablist Violence,” The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 54, (2015): 489-507.
  • Topal, Fikret, Tauscher, Soner ve Eskicioğlu, Yiğit Cem. “Avrupa’da İslamofobiyi Ölçmek: Bir İndeks Denemesi”, I. Uluslararası Medya ve İslamofobi Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara, 2023, 760-780.
  • Van Dijk, Teun A. “Mediating Racism The role of the Media in production of Racism,” Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in political discourse, içinde ed. Ruth Wodak, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1989: 203.
  • Vidgen, B., Yasseri, T. ve Margetts, H. “Islamophobes are not all the same! A study of far right actors on Twitter, Journal of Policing,” Intelligence and Counter Terrorism 17, (2022): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2021.1892166
  • VOL. “Koran gefährlicher als Corona-FPÖ als macht in Wien Stimmung,” 16 Haziran 2020. Erişim 10 Eylül 2021. https://www.vol.at/koran-gefaehrlicher-als-corona-fpoe-macht-in-wien-stimmung/6648566.
  • Wardle, Claire. “Understanding Information disorder,” First Draft, 22 Eylül 2020. Erişim 04 Nisan 2022. https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/understanding-information-disorder/

Infodemic, Fear and Disinformation: Islamophobia on Social Media During The Pandemic

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 1 Sayı: 1 - Göç ve Afet, 17 - 34, 09.10.2023

Öz

The COVID-19 pandemic has deeply impacted social interactions by exacerbating animosity, xenophobia, and biases toward various identities. Beyond the virus, the pandemic saw the concurrent dissemination of misinformation and disinformation, giving rise to what can be termed an "infodemic." Coined from the fusion of "epidemic" and "information," an infodemic signifies the rapid and extensive propagation of both inaccurate and accurate information akin to an epidemic's spread. The initial stages of the pandemic, marked by uncertainty and unpredictability, created a distinctive opening for the perpetuation of Islamophobia through conventional media and online platforms. Amidst constraints such as lockdowns, curfews, scarcities in protective equipment, economic crises, an atmosphere of ambiguity, Islamophobic and far-right actors targeted Islam, and Muslims were stigmatized in traditional media and social media. This study examines the spread of Islamophobic ideology through social media during the pandemic and techniques to increase prejudice and hatred against Muslims. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Muslims have not only been affected by disinformation in the media and social media, but cases of hate crimes and discrimination have also increased. In addition to the large number of attacks on mosques, associations, and places of worship in Europe every year, the number of hate crimes against Islam and Muslims peaked during the pandemic in developed countries such as Germany and the UK. Islamophobia is mainly produced implicitly in traditional media and can manifest itself more openly and aggressively in new media with the developing technology and digitalization. When the groups manipulating social media are analyzed, internet trolls, video game publishers on various platforms, conspiracy theorists, social media influencers, news channels, and politicians' discourses come to the fore. The most common tools these manipulators exploit are disinformation, hashtags, and memes on social media.
When we look at disinformation, India comes to the fore in addition to Western countries. Anti-Muslims in India primarily generate disinformation about Muslims as super-spreaders. In India, which has been at the center of online and offline attacks against Muslims during the pandemic, members of the ruling nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have claimed Muslims for spreading the virus. Among other disinformation, images of Muslims praying on the streets and sneaking into mosques during the COVID-19 restrictions, recorded months ago but presented as new, have been circulated especially on Twitter accounts and Telegram groups. Hashtags are essential in interacting and spreading posts in the evolving social media landscape. In particular, hashtags are used to create topical links and increase the number of views. Moreover, hashtags effectively spread Islamophobic hatred by far-right users. The viral Islamophobic and Muslim-blaming hashtags were intended to increase social pressure on Muslims. According to a report by Time magazine, #CoronaJihad was used as a hashtag in more than 300,000 tweets between March 28 and April 3, 2020, especially from India and the US, and the fact that this hashtag was viewed by millions of people on Twitter in a short time. These hashtags, mainly originating from India and containing hate speech, show that Islamophobia poses a significant threat in Europe and Asia. The prevailing societal factions in both areas endeavor to validate their ideologies by linking Islam, which they view as a menace, to the pandemic, thereby instilling fear. Memes, which are used as a humor tool and reach many people quickly by reproducing through imitation, turn into today's online propaganda tools with these features. Especially far-right accounts use memes effectively to spread their ideologies, create networks, and marginalize different groups. When we examine the prominent Islamophobic memes during the pandemic, images show Muslims as suicide bombers and now virus spreaders. Apart from these, there are memes claiming that the producer of the virus is China and the distributor is Muslims. The far-right, which sought to validate its endeavors prior to the pandemic by exploiting apprehension and distrust surrounding matters like terrorism, immigration, the economy, and unemployment, persisted in its activities amid the pandemic by:
1) Accusing Muslims of being responsible for propagating the virus,
2) Asserting that aid was being hindered from reaching other societal groups due to Muslims,
3) Producing disinformation that Muslims were subjected to preferential treatment throughout the pandemic.
As a result, the COVID-19 pandemic has been a great tragedy affecting people and increased discrimination and hostility towards Muslims. The conditions created by the pandemic have influenced Islamophobic actors to legitimize their discourse through fake news, disinformation, hashtags, and memes.

Kaynakça

  • Abdelaziz, Rowaida. “Anti-Muslim Propaganda Is Seeping Into Online Discourse About The Coronavirus,” Huffpost, 10 Nisan 2020. Erişim 04 Ekim 2021. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/anti-muslim-propaganda-is-seeping-into-coronavirus-coverage_n_5e90b721c5b624efd9a27fab
  • Abdou, L. H., Bale, T. ve Geddes, A. P. “Centre-right parties and immigration in an era of politicisation,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48, sayı: 2 (2022): 327-340. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1853901
  • Abu-Ras, W. M., Suarez, Z. E. “Muslim Men and Women’s Perception of Discrimination, Hate Crimes, and PTSD Symptoms Post 9/11,” Traumatology 15, sayı: 3 (2009): 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765609342281
  • Al-Qazzaz, Khaled. “Islamophobia is on the rise during COVID-19,” Policy Options, 1 Ekim 2020. Erişim 10 Ocak 2021. https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2020/islamophobia-is-on-the-rise-during-covid-19/
  • Awan, I., Khan-Williams, R. “Research Briefing Report 2020: Coronavirus, Fear and How Islamophobia Spreads on Social Media,” Erişim 12 Ocak 2021. https://antimuslimhatredworkinggrouphome.files.wordpress.com/2020/04/research-briefing-report-7-1.pdf Bähre, Erik. “Dutch superiority the cause of so many Covid-19 infections?”, leidenanthropologyblog, 20 Ekim 2020, Erişim 22 Mart 2022. https://www.leidenanthropologyblog.nl/articles/dutch-superiority-the-cause-of-so-many-covid-19-infections
  • Balcı, A., Cicioğlu, F. “Turkey in the discourse of European far right: the uses and abuses of Turkey’s membership process for a counter-hegemony,” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 28, sayı: 1 (2020): 100-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2019.1677574
  • British Medical Association. “COVID-19: the risk to BAME doctors”. Erişim 10 Ocak 2021. https://www.bma.org.uk/adviceand-support/covid-19/your-health/covid-19-therisk-to-bame-doctors
  • Castaño-Pulgarín, S. A., Suárez-Betancur, N., Vega, L. M. T. ve López, H. M. H. “Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 58, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101608.
  • Challies, D. M., Hunt, M., Garry, M. ve Harper, D. N. “Whatever Gave You That Idea? False Memories Following Equivalence Training: A Behavioral Account Of The Misinformation Effect,” Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 96, (2011): 343-362. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.2011.96-343
  • Conway, M. “Determining the role of the Internet in violent extremism and terrorism: six suggestions for progressing research,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 25, (2016): 77–98.
  • Darius, P. ve Stephany, F. “Hashjacking” the Debate: Polarisation Strategies of Germany’s Political Far-Right on Twitter. In, et al. Social Informatics. SocInfo 2019. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11864. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34971-4_21
  • Davison, Patrick. “The Language of Internet Memes”, The Social Media Reader, New York: New York University Press, 2012: 120–134.
  • Dodd, Vikran. “Met police twice as likely to fine black people over lockdown breaches – research,” The Guardian. 03 Haziran 2020. Erişim 10 Eylül 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/jun/03/met-police-twice-as-likely-to-fine-black-people-over-lockdown-breaches-research
  • ECRI. “ECRI Report On Austria (Sixth Monitoring Cycle),” 7 Nisan 2020. Erişim 10 Eylül 2021. https://rm.coe.int/report-on-austria-6th-monitoring-cycle-/16809e826f
  • Erdoğan, Emre, Uyan Semerci, Pınar, Eyolcu Kafalı, Bilnur ve Çaytaş, Şaban. İnfodemi ve Bilgi Düzensizlikleri: Kavramlar, Nedenler ve Çözümler. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2022.
  • Eskicioğlu, Y. C. “İslamofobik Nefret Söylemi Aracı Olarak "Mem"ler,” TRT Akademi 7, sayı: 15 (2022): 702-731. https://doi.org/10.37679/trta.1101280
  • Euronews. “Hindistan'da Covid-19'u yaymakla suçlanan Müslümanlar bazı hastanelere alınmıyor,” 25 Nisan 2020. Erişim 10 Aralık 2020. https://tr.euronews.com/2020/04/25/hindistanda-covid-19-u-yaymakla-suclanan-muslumanlar-baz-hastanelere-alinmiyor
  • Fox, J., Cruz, C. ve Lee, J. Y. “Perpetuating online sexism offline: Anonymity, interactivity, and the effects of sexist hashtags on social media,” Computers in Human Behavior 52, (2015): 436-442, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.024
  • Gamir-Ríos J., Tarullo, R. ve Ibáńez-Cuquerella, M. “Multimodal disinformation about otherness on the internet. The spread of racist, xenophobic and islamophobic fake news in 2020,” Anàlisi 64, (2021): 49–64.
  • Gölcü, A., Çuhadar, M. "Batı Toplumlarında İslamofobi’nin Üretilmesinde Medyanın Rolü," Ombudsman Akademik 7, (2017): 71-99.
  • Hakoköngäs, E. Halmesvaara, O. ve Sakki, I. “Persuasion Through Bitter Humor: Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Rhetoric in Internet Memes of Two Far-Right Groups in Finland,” Social Media + Society 6, sayı: 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120921575
  • Hashmi, S., Khan, M. H. ve Amer, M. “Islamophobic Discourses in India During COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case of Tablighi Jamaat,” Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2023.2198537
  • Herman, Edward S. ve Chomsky, Noam. Medya Halka Nasıl Evet Dedirtir. İstanbul: Minerva Yayınları, 1999.
  • Hopyar, Z. “Covid-19 Sürecinde Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizlikleri: Birleşik Krallık Örneği,” Akademik Düşünce Dergisi 4, (2021): 90-106. https://doi.org/10.53507/akademikdusunce.913572
  • Horsti, K. “Digital Islamophobia: The Swedish woman as a figure of pure and dangerous whiteness,” New Media & Society 19, sayı: 9 (2017): 1440–1457. https://doi. org/10.1177/1461444816642169
  • Kalın, İbrahim. "İslamofobi ve Çokkültürlülüğün Sınırları", Bir Korku ve Nefret Söylemi Olarak İslamofobi, içinde ed. John L. Esposito ve İbrahim Kalın. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2018.
  • Knobel, M., Lankshear, C. "Online memes, affinities, and cultural production," A new literacies sampler 29, (2007): 199-227.
  • Kruglanski, A., Jasko, K., Webber, D., Chernikova, M. ve Molinario, E. “The Making of Violent Extremists,” Review of General Psychology 22, sayı:1 (2018): 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000144
  • Marwick, Alice ve Lewis, Rebecca. “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online,” Data & Society Research Institute, 2017.
  • Mujahidin, M. S. "Islamophobia and allegations against corona virus spread by Muslim minority in India," AJIS 6, sayı:2 (2021): 217.
  • Nagar, I., Gill, S. “Head is Where the Herd is: Fake News and Effect of Online Social Conformity on Islamophobia in Indians,” Social Sciences & Humanities Open, (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3651297 Nissenbaum, A., Shifman, L. “Internet memes as contested cultural capital: The case of 4chan’s /b/ board,” New Media & Society 19, sayı: 4 (2017): 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815609313
  • Office for National Statistics. “Coronavirus (COVID-19) related deaths by religious group, England and Wales: 2 March to 15 May 2020.” Erişim 10 Ocak 2021. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/articles/coronaviruscovid19relateddeathsbyreligiousgro upenglandandwales/2marchto15may2020
  • OSCE. “Hate Crime Laws.” Erişim 13 Aralık 2021. https://www.osce.org/odihr/36426 OSCE. “Hate Crime Against Muslims.” Erişim 13 Aralık 2021. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/1/6/373441_1.pdf
  • OSCE. “What is Hate Crime.” Erişim 13 Aralık 2021. https://hatecrime.osce.org/ Parveen, Nazia. “Police investigate UK far-right groups over anti-Muslim coronavirus claims,” The Guardian, 05 Nisan 2020. Erişim 15 Ocak 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/police-investigate-uk-far-right-groups-over-anti-muslim-coronavirus-claims
  • Perrigo, Billy. “It Was Already Dangerous to Be Muslim in India. Then Came the Coronavirus,” Time, 03 Nisan 2020. Erişim 20 Eylül 2022. https://time.com/5815264/coronavirus-india-islamophobia-coronajihad/
  • Poole, E., Haifa, G. E. ve de Quincey, E. “Tactical interventions in online hate speech: The case of #stopIslam,” New Media & Society 23, sayı: 6 (2021): 1415–1442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820903319
  • Poole, E., Williamson, M. “Disrupting or reconfiguring racist narratives about Muslims? The representation of British Muslims during the Covid crisis,” Journalism 24, sayı: 2 (2023): 262–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211030129
  • Runnymede Trust. Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All: Report of the Runnymede Trust Commission On British Muslims and Islamophobia. London: Runnymede Trust, 1997.
  • Tauscher, Soner. “Islamophobia in Germany: National Report 2020”, European Islamophobia Report 2020, içinde ed. Enes Bayraklı ve Farid Hafez, Viyana, Leopold Weiss Institute, 2021: 353-393.
  • Thorneycroft, R., Asquith, N. L. “The Dark Figure of Disablist Violence,” The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 54, (2015): 489-507.
  • Topal, Fikret, Tauscher, Soner ve Eskicioğlu, Yiğit Cem. “Avrupa’da İslamofobiyi Ölçmek: Bir İndeks Denemesi”, I. Uluslararası Medya ve İslamofobi Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara, 2023, 760-780.
  • Van Dijk, Teun A. “Mediating Racism The role of the Media in production of Racism,” Language, Power and Ideology: Studies in political discourse, içinde ed. Ruth Wodak, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1989: 203.
  • Vidgen, B., Yasseri, T. ve Margetts, H. “Islamophobes are not all the same! A study of far right actors on Twitter, Journal of Policing,” Intelligence and Counter Terrorism 17, (2022): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2021.1892166
  • VOL. “Koran gefährlicher als Corona-FPÖ als macht in Wien Stimmung,” 16 Haziran 2020. Erişim 10 Eylül 2021. https://www.vol.at/koran-gefaehrlicher-als-corona-fpoe-macht-in-wien-stimmung/6648566.
  • Wardle, Claire. “Understanding Information disorder,” First Draft, 22 Eylül 2020. Erişim 04 Nisan 2022. https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/understanding-information-disorder/
Toplam 45 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Sosyal Medya Çalışmaları, Yeni Medya
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Yiğit Cem Eskicioğlu

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 26 Eylül 2023
Yayımlanma Tarihi 9 Ekim 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Cilt: 1 Sayı: 1 - Göç ve Afet

Kaynak Göster

APA Eskicioğlu, Y. C. (2023). İnfodemi, Korku ve Dezenformasyon: Pandemi Döneminde Sosyal Medyada İslamofobi. Journal of Migration and Political Studies, 1(1), 17-34.

by-nc.svg

Content of this journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License.
Bu eser Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.
Journal of Migration and Political Studies (MIPOS) bilginin paylaşımı için Açık Erişim Politikasına uymaktadır.