Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students

Tufan İnaltekin; Ataman Karaçöp; Hakan Akçay

doi:10.17275/per.26.24.13.2

Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the social and cultural informal learning opportunities of middle and high school students based on gender, grade level, and place of residence. The sample consists of 1,310 students from a province located in eastern Türkiye. Data were collected through three items concerning personal information and two special multiple-response items in the Informal Learning Opportunities Test (ILOT). The data were analyzed using multiple response analysis and the chi-square test of independence. The results indicated that gender did not significantly influence students’ camp preferences; however, it had a significant effect on their activity preferences. Both boy and girl students exhibited low participation in science camps, yet girl students tended to prefer social, cultural, and nature-based activities, while boy students favored physical or technical activities. Participation in STEM-related activities was low for both genders. Grade level did not significantly affect camp preferences but showed a significant influence on activity preferences. Upper-grade students were more open to a variety of camp experiences, whereas 10th-grade students demonstrated limited participation. Younger students (5th and 6th graders) preferred entertainment-oriented visits, 7th graders were more inclined toward science and cultural trips, and older students (9th and 10th graders) tended to engage in vocational visits. Moreover, significant differences were found in both camp and activity preferences according to place of residence. Students from city and district areas participated in camps more frequently than those from villages or metropolitan regions. While village and district students preferred nature-based activities, city students showed a greater inclination toward cultural activities.

Keywords

social and cultural informal learning, middle and high school students, disadvantaged regions

Supporting Institution

Kafkas University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Office

Project Number

Kafkas University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Office Code: 2022-SB-59

Ethical Statement

Ethical permissions were obtained from the decision of Kafkas University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee dated 10/12/2021 and numbered 25 and the decision of Kars Provincial Directorate of National Education dated 20.09.2022 and numbered E.58291949.

References

Adams, J. D. (2020). Designing frameworks for authentic equity in science teaching and learning: Informal learning environments and teacher education for STEM. Asia-Pacific Science Education, 6(2), 456-479. https://doi.org/10.1163/23641177-bja10016
Akram, S. (2024). Bridging the gap: Understanding out-of-school children in Pakistan. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 19(3), 454-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2024.2352623
Alam, G. M., & Parvin, M. (2024). Has secondary science program become an elite urban education product in the former colonized nation? Education and Urban Society, 56(8), 1002-1024. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131245241238360
Balçın, M. D., & Topaloğlu, M. Y. (2019). Investigation of primary school students’ perceptions towards engineers and scientists at out-of-school learning environments. Ordu University Journal of Social Science Research, 9(1), 157-170.
Ballane, G. P. (2019). Understanding of self-confidence in high school students. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Walden University.
Bonnette, R. N., Crowley, K., & Schunn, C. D. (2019). Falling in love and staying in love with science: Ongoing informal science experiences support fascination for all children. International Journal of Science Education, 41(12), 1626-1643. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2019.1623431
Bourke, R., O'Neill, J., & Loveridge, J. (2024). Conceptions and dimensions of children's informal learning. In R. Bourke., J. O’Neill & J. Loveridge (Eds.), Understanding children's informal learning: Appreciating everyday learners (pp. 53-74). Emerald Publishing Limited.
Buck, G. A., Chinn, P. W., & Upadhyay, B. (2023). Science education in urban and rural contexts: Expanding on conceptual tools for urban-centric research. In Handbook of research on science education (pp. 359-388). Routledge.
Chuang, S. (2021). The applications of constructivist learning theory and social learning theory on adult continuous development. Performance Improvement, 60(3), 6-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.21963
DeWitt, J., & Archer, L. (2017). Participation in informal science learning experiences: The rich get richer?. International Journal of Science Education, 7(4), 356-373. https://doi.org/10.1080/21548455.2017.1360531

Djonko-Moore, C. M., Leonard, J., Holifield, Q., Bailey, E. B., & Almughyirah, S. M. (2018). Using culturally relevant experiential education to enhance urban children’s knowledge and engagement in science. Journal of Experiential Education, 41(2), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538259177421
Directorate General of Youth Services [DGYS]. (2025). Youth camps. https://genclikhizmetleri.gov.tr/hizmetlerimiz/genclik-kamplari-8/.
Dixon, C. S. (2023). Barriers and solutions for STEM students from rural areas. In Handbook of research on race, culture, and student achievement (pp. 136-154). IGI Global.
Dou, R., Hazari, Z., Dabney, K., Sonnert, G., & Sadler, P. (2019). Early informal STEM experiences and STEM identity: The importance of talking science. Science Education, 103(3), 623-637. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21499
Erzeybek, B. (2015). Determining the gender role of parents during rising up their children (Master's thesis, Ankara University).
Eshach, H. (2007). Bridging in-school and out-of-school learning: Formal, non-formal, and informal education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16 (2), 171-190. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10956-006-9027-1
Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (2010). The 95 percent solution: School is not where most learning takes place. American Scientist, 98(6), 486–493. https://doi.org/10.1511/2010.87.486
Gerber, B. L., Marek, E. A., & Cavallo, A. M. (2001). Development of an informal learning opportunities assay. International Journal of Science Education, 23(6), 569-583. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690116959
Ghadiri Khanaposhtani, M., Liu, C. J., Gottesman, B. L., Shepardson, D., & Pijanowski, B. (2018). Evidence that an informal environmental summer camp can contribute to the construction of the conceptual understanding and situational interest of STEM in middle-school youth. International Journal of Science Education, 8(3), 227-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/21548455.2018.1451665
Grinnell, F., Dalley, S., & Reisch, J. (2023). High school science fair: School location trends in student participation and experience. PloS One, 18(9), e0291049.
Habig, B., Gupta, P., Levine, B., & Adams, J. (2020). An informal science education program’s impact on STEM major and STEM career outcomes. Research in Science Education, 50(3), 1051-1074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-018-9722-y
Henley, L., & Roberts, P. (2016). Perceived barriers to higher education in STEM among disadvantaged rural students: A case study. Inquiry, 20(1), 19-38.
Houston, A. (2023). A space of our own: Informal social spaces in middle schools. (Unpublished master thesis). The Florida State University.
Jeong, S., Han, S. J., Lee, J., Sunalai, S., & Yoon, S. W. (2018). Integrative literature review on informal learning: Antecedents, conceptualizations, and future directions. Human Resource Development Review, 17(2), 128-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484318772242
Johnson, M., & Majewska, D. (2022). Formal, non-formal, and informal learning: What are they, and how can we research them? Research report. Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
Jones, N. N., Wilson, A. D., Gaskin, L. M. N., Rayford, D., & Owusu, K. A. (2025). Using quantitative ethnography to explore the cultural nuances of identity of secondary students in Ghana, Kenya and the United States of America in an informal learning program. Journal of International Cooperation in Education.27(2), 104-120. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICE-04-2024-0016
Kerai, S., Ibrahim, M., Molyneux, T. M., Hussain, U., Gadermann, A., Kassam, R., ... & Oberle, E. (2024). Out‐of‐school time use in Pakistan: A qualitative study featuring youth's voices. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 34(2), 296-312. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12916
Kollmayer, M., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2018). Gender stereotypes in education: Development, consequences, and interventions. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 361-377. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1193483
Kormos, E., & Wisdom, K. (2021). Rural schools and the digital divide: Technology in the learning experience. Theory & Practice in Rural Education, 11(1), 25-39. https://doi.org/10.3776/tpre.2021.v11n1p25-39
Kumari, M., Kumar Sharma, A., Basu, N., Rastogi, P., & Mishra, S. (2024). Significance of informal education in shaping academic success during middle school years. International Journal of Social Sciences Arts and Humanities, 11(2), 55-66.
Lenard, M. A., & Silliman, M. (2025). Informal social interactions, academic achievement and behavior: Evidence from peers on the school bus. The Economic Journal, 135 (October), 2359–2373. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueaf013
Lewin, C.,& Charania, A. (2018). Bridging formal and informal learning through technology in the twenty-first century: issues and challenges. In: Voogt, J., Knezek, G., Christensen, R., Lai, KW. (Eds.), Second handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education (pp.1-17). Springer.
Low, A. M., & Kalender, Z. Y. (2024). Predictors and socio-demographic disparities in stem degree outcomes: A UK longitudinal study using hierarchical logistic regression. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.05853. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2408.05853
Maiorca, C., Roberts, T., Jackson, C., Bush, S., Delaney, A., Mohr-Schroeder, M. J., & Soledad, S. Y. (2021). Informal learning environments and impact on interest in STEM careers. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 19(1), 45-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-019-10038-9
Miles, S., Pohl, A., Stauber, B., Walther, A., Banha, R. M. B., & do Carmo Gomes, M. (2018). Communities of youth: Cultural practice and informal learning. Routledge.
Moreland, R. (2019). Towards a learning society: The role of formal, non-formal and informal learning. In P. Oliver (Ed.), Lifelong and continuing education (pp. 159-179). Routledge.
Mupezeni, S., & Kriek, J. (2018). Out-of-school activity: A comparison of the experiences of rural and urban participants in science fairs in the Limpopo province, South Africa. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(8), em1577. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/ 92041
Nygren, H., Nissinen, K., Hämäläinen, R., & De Wever, B. (2019). Lifelong learning: Formal, non‐formal and informal learning in the context of the use of problem‐solving skills in technology‐rich environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(4), 1759-1770. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12807
Pallant, J. (2010). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS (4th ed). Allen & Unwin.
Perets, S., Davidovich, N., & Lewin, E. (2023). Perceptions of leadership, self-confidence and leadership programs among teenage girls in Israel. Cogent Education, 10(1), 2195742. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2195742
Pesch, A., Fletcher, K. K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2025). Evidence‐based meets community‐centred: A new approach to creating informal learning opportunities for children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 5-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12511
Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. E. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and engagement. Routledge.
Reznik, G., Massarani, L., & Calabrese Barton, A. (2023). Informal science learning experiences for gender equity, inclusion and belonging in STEM through a feminist intersectional lens. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 18(3), 959-984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-023-10149-4
Riedinger, K. (2015). Identity development of youth during participation at an informal science education camp. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 10(3), 453-475. https://doi.org/10.12973/ijese.2015.254a
Roberts, T., Jackson, C., Mohr-Schroeder, M. J., Bush, S. B., Maiorca, C., Cavalcanti, M., ... & Cremeans, C. (2018). Students’ perceptions of STEM learning after participating in a summer informal learning experience. International Journal of STEM Education, 5(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0133-4
Rogoff, B., Callanan, M., Gutiérrez, K. D., & Erickson, F. (2016). The organization of informal learning. Review of Research in Education, 40(1), 356-401. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16680994
Sahin, A., Gulacar, O., & Stuessy, C. (2015). High school students’ perceptions of the effects of international science olympiad on their STEM career aspirations and twenty-first century skill development. Research in Science Education, 45(6), 785-805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-014-9439-5
Salleh, N. Z. M., Shaari, R., Yaacob, T. Z., Abdullah, M., & Selamat, R. (2021, November). Using informal learning to increase body confidence awareness among schoolchildren. In R. Omar (Chair), Embracing New Norms. International Symposium on Teaching & Learning Innovation. Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Sapulette, A. A., & Ritiauw, B. (2025). Reformulation of the education system: Negotiating the gap in access to education through strengthening social capital capacity. Journal of Social Science and Business Studies, 3(2), 412-419. https://doi.org/10.61487/jssbs.v3i2.142
Shah, I., Ijaz, Z., Ali, S., & Alrweili, H. (2025). Modeling the determinants of out-of-school children in Pakistan. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15366367.2025.2449630
Simbo, C. (2025). Exploring the purpose and evolution of education: from informal learning to formal schooling, challenges, international legal frameworks and recommendations for the future. International Journal of Research in Business & Social Science, 14(2), 309-315. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v14i2.3920
Starr-Glass, D. (2015). Making sense of surrounding difference: Informal learning in national culture adaptation. In O. Mejiuni, P. Cranton, & O. Táíwò (Eds.), Measuring and analyzing informal learning in the digital age (pp. 198–214). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-8265-8.ch014
Stevens, S., Andrade, R., & Page, M. (2016). Motivating young Native American students to pursue STEM learning through a culturally relevant science program. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 25(6), 947-960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-016-9629-1
Tisza, G., Papavlasopoulou, S., Christidou, D., Voulgari, I., Iivari, N., Giannakos, M. N., ... & Markopoulos, P. (2019, May). The role of age and gender on implementing informal and non-formal science learning activities for children. In Proceedings of the Fablearn Europe 2019 Conference (pp. 1-9). New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery, http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3335055. 3335065.
Todd, B. L., & Zvoch, K. (2019). The effect of an informal science intervention on middle school girls’ science affinities. International Journal of Science Education, 41(1), 102-122. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2018.1534022
URL 1: https://lotusfinans.com/2025-illere-gore-tahmini-hanehalki-gelirleri/
Wang, M.-T., & Hofkens, T. L. (2020). Beyond classroom academics: a school-wide and multi-contextual perspective on student engagement in school. Adolescent Research Review, 5(4), 419–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00115-z
Ye, W. (2018). Socioeconomic status and out-of-school citizenship education in China’s Shanghai. Education and Urban Society, 50(7), 641-669. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124517713609

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Education Policy

Journal Section

Research Article

Authors

Tufan İnaltekin ^*
0000-0002-3843-7393
Türkiye

Ataman Karaçöp
0000-0001-8939-3725
Türkiye

Hakan Akçay
0000-0003-0307-661X
Türkiye

Publication Date

March 8, 2026

Submission Date

August 14, 2025

Acceptance Date

November 23, 2025

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 13 Number: 2

DOI

https://doi.org/10.17275/per.26.24.13.2

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA27GM26DX

APA

İnaltekin, T., Karaçöp, A., & Akçay, H. (2026). Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students. Participatory Educational Research, 13(2), 165-187. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.26.24.13.2

AMA

1.İnaltekin T, Karaçöp A, Akçay H. Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students. PER. 2026;13(2):165-187. doi:10.17275/per.26.24.13.2

Chicago

İnaltekin, Tufan, Ataman Karaçöp, and Hakan Akçay. 2026. “Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students”. Participatory Educational Research 13 (2): 165-87. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.26.24.13.2.

EndNote

İnaltekin T, Karaçöp A, Akçay H (March 1, 2026) Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students. Participatory Educational Research 13 2 165–187.

IEEE

[1]T. İnaltekin, A. Karaçöp, and H. Akçay, “Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students”, PER, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 165–187, Mar. 2026, doi: 10.17275/per.26.24.13.2.

ISNAD

İnaltekin, Tufan - Karaçöp, Ataman - Akçay, Hakan. “Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students”. Participatory Educational Research 13/2 (March 1, 2026): 165-187. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.26.24.13.2.

JAMA

1.İnaltekin T, Karaçöp A, Akçay H. Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students. PER. 2026;13:165–187.

MLA

İnaltekin, Tufan, et al. “Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students”. Participatory Educational Research, vol. 13, no. 2, Mar. 2026, pp. 165-87, doi:10.17275/per.26.24.13.2.

Vancouver

1.Tufan İnaltekin, Ataman Karaçöp, Hakan Akçay. Investigation of Social and Cultural Informal Learning Opportunities for Middle and High School Students. PER. 2026 Mar. 1;13(2):165-87. doi:10.17275/per.26.24.13.2