Mapping Simultaneity: A Parallel Agencies Framework for Sociopolitical Analysis in Bangladesh

Öz

Current approaches to Bangladesh's sociopolitical analysis often work through isolating incidents. It prioritizes single-agency causality. They obscure complex interactions among non-state, state, societal, and international actors. This paper introduces the parallel agencies framework. It systematically maps simultaneous agency interactions across governance contexts. It is based on theoretical foundations from the agent–structure debate, network theory, and systems theory. The framework integrates event-structure mapping with social network analysis, and identifies tangent overlaps—zones where different agencies converge, diverge, or complement each other. The study demonstrates how multi-actor constellations generate emergent outcomes and challenge linear causality by analyzing eighteen empirically rich case studies spanning security, political, social, religious, and cultural domains. The framework enhances analytical precision and policy relevance. It identifies feedback loops, coordination gaps, and leverage points for intervention. It offers a scalable, context-sensitive lens for understanding Bangladesh's dense and contested sociopolitical fabric, with broader applicability to hybrid governance settings across South Asia.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Parallel agencies framework
• Sociopolitical analysis
• Bangladesh
• Actor-network interactions
• Multi-agency governance
• Conflict dynamics

Kaynakça

1. Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED). (2024). The violent politics of Bangladesh’s 2024 elections. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep56953
2. Adeney, K., & Wyatt, A. (2004). Democracy in South Asia: Getting beyond the structure-agency dichotomy. Political Studies, 52(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2004.00461.x
3. Ahmad, M. A., Baryannis, G., & Hill, R. (2024). Defining complex adaptive systems: An algorithmic approach. Systems, 12(2), 45–45. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12020045
4. Ahmed, F., Shoichet, C. E., & Almasy, S. (2016, July 1). Dhaka cafe standoff: At least 13 hostages rescued as siege ends. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2016/07/01/asia/bangladesh-dhaka-shooting/index.html
5. Ahmmed, M. E. (2023). Analyzing legal challenges of Bangladesh police for achieving polycentric security governance (PSG). SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4574869
6. Al Jazeera. (2022, June 5). Bangladesh: Deadly fire and explosions at a container facility. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/5/16-killed-170-injured-in-bangladesh-container-depot-fire
7. Al Jazeera. (2023a, July 7). At least six Rohingya refugees were killed in Bangladesh camp clashes. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/7/several-rohingya-refugees-killed-in-bangladesh-camp-clashes
8. Al Jazeera. (2023b, September 22). No EU election team for Bangladesh amid concerns over free and fair vote. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/22/no-eu-election-team-for-bangladesh-amid-concerns-over-free-and-fair-vote

9. Al Jazeera. (2024, August 11). New Bangladesh government says working to ‘resolve’ attacks on minorities. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/11/new-bangladesh-government-says-working-to-resolve-attacks-on-minorities
10. Al-Mahmood, S. Z. (2012, April 11). Dhaka slum dwellers live under the threat of eviction. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/apr/11/dhaka-bangladesh-slum-dwellers-eviction
11. Alam, A., & Hoque, M. M. (2022). Local level collaborative governance for pandemic responses: Unpacking a case in Bangladesh. Policy & Governance Review, 6(3), 207-228. https://doi.org/10.30589/pgr.v6i3.589
12. Alam, F. (2025, July 19). Looking at the July uprising through Actor-Network Theory. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/looking-the-july-uprising-through-actor-network-theory-3942626
13. Ali, T. O., Hassan, M., & Hossain, N. (2021). The moral and political economy of the pandemic in Bangladesh: Weak states and strong societies during COVID-19. World Development, 137, Article 105216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105216
14. Amnesty International. (2022). Protect the protest activity write for rights 2022. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/POL3258982022ENGLISH.pdf
15. Andaleeb, S. S. (2007). Political culture in Bangladesh. UPL.
16. Antony, E. M.-A. (2022). Framing childhood resilience through Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: A discussion paper. Cambridge Educational Research e-Journal, 9, 244-257. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.90564
17. Atalayar. (2023, March 8). Ahmadiyya community denounces violent attack at its annual convention in Bangladesh and death. https://www.atalayar.com/en/articulo/society/ahmadiyya-community-denounces-violent-attack-its-annual-convention-bangladesh-and-death/20230308133303182086.html
18. Barnett, M., & Duvall, R. (2005). Power in international politics. International Organization, 59(1), 39–75. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3877878
19. Baxter, G., & Sommerville, I. (2011). Socio-technical systems: From design methods to systems engineering. Interacting with Computers, 23(1), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intcom.2010.07.003
20. BBC. (2017, January 6). Bangladesh cafe attack ‘mastermind’ killed in gunfight, say police. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38527320
21. bdnews24.com. (2022a, June 6). Those responsible for the Sitakunda fire will face justice after the investigation, Home Minister says. https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/those-responsible-for-sitakunda-fire-will-face-justice-after-investigation-home-minister
22. bdnews24.com. (2022b, June 8). Questions hang over role of owners in deadly fire at BM Container Depot; https://bdnews24.com/business/questions-hang-over-role-of-owners-in-deadly-fire-at-bm-container-depot
23. Bertalanffy, L. V. (1968). General system theory: Foundations, development, applications. Braziller.
24. Bhuiyan, Md. I. H., Hassan, S. M. K., & Islam, K. M. (2018). Role of community-based organisations in promoting democratic local governance at the grassroots in Bangladesh. Journal of Development Policy and Practice, 3(2), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/2455133318772410
25. Boas, I. (2020). Social networking in a digital and mobile world: The case of environmentally-related migration in Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(7), 1330–1347. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1605891
26. Borderlens. (2024, November 24). Culture in crisis: Extremists halt Bangladesh's iconic Lalon fair, threatening spiritual freedom. https://www.borderlens.com/2024/11/24/culture-in-crisis-extremists-halt-bangladeshs-iconic-lalon-fair-threatening-spiritual-freedom
27. Borgatti, S. P., & Everett, M. G. (2000). Models of core/periphery structures. Social Networks, 21(4), 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8733(99)00019-2
28. Borgatti, S. P., & Halgin, D. S. (2011). On network theory. Organization Science, Articles in Advance, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1110.0641
29. Borthakur, D. A. (2025, January 6). Bangladesh in 2024: A year of political turmoil and transformation. https://www.vifindia.org/article/2025/january/06/Bangladesh-in-2024-A-Year-of-Political-Turmoil-and-Transformation
30. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
31. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv26071r6
32. Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
33. Budd, J. W., Colvin, A. J. S., & Pohler, D. (2019). Advancing dispute resolution by understanding the sources of conflict: Toward an integrated framework. ILR Review, 73(2), 254–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793919866817
34. BUET-JIDPUS. (2021). Earthquake contingency plan for Ward 2, Sunamganj municipality: Volume 2. https://nrpbd.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Sunamganj-Ward_2_Contingency_Volm-2.pdf
35. Burger, A., Kennedy, W. G., & Crooks, A. (2021). Organizing theories for disasters into a complex adaptive system framework. Urban Science, 5(3), 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci5030061
36. Business & Human Rights Resource Centre. (2021, June 22). Bangladesh: 129 individuals and 74 organisations demand a halt to the Banshkhali coal power plant in a letter to the Chinese Minister of Commerce. https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/bangladesh-129-individuals-and-74-organisations-demand-stop-to-banshkhali-coal-power-plant-in-letter-to-chinese-minister-of-commerce
37. Carmody-Bubb, M. (2023). What is a complex adaptive system? In Springer eBooks (pp. 7–11). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31929-7_2
38. Cartelli, A. (2007). Socio-technical theory and knowledge construction: Towards new pedagogical paradigms? In Proceedings of the 2007 InSITE Conference. https://doi.org/10.28945/3051
39. Checkland, P., & Poulter, J. (2006). Learning for action: A short definitive account of soft systems methodology and its use for practitioners, teachers and students. Wiley.
40. Chowdhury, N. S. (2025). The return of politics in Bangladesh. Journal of Democracy, 36(1), 65–78. https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-return-of-politics-in-bangladesh/
41. Chowdhury, T. (2022, October 4). UN accuses Bangladesh of suppressing environmental activism. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/10/4/bangladeshs-security-act-supresses-environmental-activism-un
42. Cibu, B., Delcea, C., Domenteanu, A., & Dumitrescu, G. (2023). Mapping the evolution of cybernetics: A bibliometric perspective. Computers, 12(11), 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers12110237
43. CIVICUS Monitor. (2024a). Bangladesh: Crackdown on the political opposition and activists continues ahead of elections. https://monitor.civicus.org/explore/bangladesh-crackdown-on-the-political-opposition-and-activists-continues-ahead-of-elections/
44. CIVICUS Monitor. (2024b). Bangladesh: Criminalisation of activists and crackdown on protests continue following one-sided elections. https://monitor.civicus.org/explore/bangladesh-criminalisation-of-activists-and-crackdown-on-protests-continue-following-one-sided-elections
45. Cole, B. R. (2018). 4 Persistent factionalism: Bangladesh, Bolivia, Zimbabwe. In Democratization and the mischief of faction, (pp. 85–112). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781626377363-006
46. Cronin, B., & Sugimoto, C. R. (2014). Beyond bibliometrics: Harnessing multidimensional indicators of scholarly impact. MIT Press.
47. Daily Country BD. (2025a). One kg of crystal meth ice was seized by the Coast Guard in Teknaf. Daily Country Today BD. https://www.dailycountrytodaybd.com/story/one-kg-crystal-meth-ice-seized-by-coast-guard-in-teknaf
48. Daily Country BD. (2025b). Parents' assembly, drama to prevent child marriage in Phulbari. Daily Country Today BD. https://www.dailycountrytodaybd.com/public/story/parents%27-assembly%2C-drama-to-prevent-child-marriage-in-phulbari
49. Daily Country BD. (2025c, May 16). Coast Guard destroys drugs worth about Tk 46 cr seized in joint operation in Teknaf. Daily Country Today BD. https://www.dailycountrytodaybd.com/public/story/coast-guard-destroys-drugs-worth-about-tk-46-cr-seized-in-joint-operation-in-tekna
50. De Smith, M. J., Goodchild, M. F., Longley, P. A., & Associates. (2025). Geospatial analysis: A comprehensive guide to principles, techniques, and software tools (7th ed.). https://www.spatialanalysisonline.com/extractv7.pdf
51. Decker, S. (2022). Introducing the eventful temporality of historical research into international business. Journal of World Business, 57(6), Article 101380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2022.101380
52. Deutsche Welle. (2016, July 3). Bangladesh begins days of mourning after terror attack. https://www.dw.com/en/bangladesh-begins-two-days-of-mourning-following-terrorist-attack-that-killed-dozens/a-19374296
53. Deutsche Welle. (2018, August 4). Bangladesh police clash with student protesters. https://www.dw.com/en/bangladesh-students-injured-as-police-clash-with-road-safety-protesters/a-44953829
54. Deutsche Welle. (2019, November 27). Bangladesh sentences 7 Islamist militants to death. https://www.dw.com/en/bangladesh-7-islamist-militants-sentenced-to-death-over-cafe-attack/a-51431270
55. Department for International Development (DFID). (2002). Conducting conflict assessments: Guidance notes [Guidance document]. https://inee.org/sites/default/files/resources/doc_1_Conducting_Conflict_Assessments.pdf
56. Dhaka Tribune. (2019). How did Kurigram declare itself child marriage-free? https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/195111/how-did-kurigram-declare-itself-child
57. Dhaka Tribune. (2021a). 43 arrested over attacks on Comilla Durga Puja venues. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/315548/43-arrested-over-attacks-on-comilla-durga-puja
58. Dhaka Tribune. (2021b). Comilla carnage: CID points finger at political figures. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/318569/comilla-carnage-cid-points-finger-at-political
59. Dhaka Tribune. (2022a). Comilla puja mandap violence: Cases in limbo, no charge sheet in 9 months. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/291082/comilla-puja-mandap-violence-cases-in-limbo-no
60. Dhaka Tribune. (2022b). Kurigram sees a significant decline in child marriage. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/265453/kurigram-sees-significant-decline-in-child
61. Dhaka Tribune. (2022c). With scars from 2021, Comilla sees tighter security for Durga Puja. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/295137/with-scars-from-2021-comilla-sees-tighter
62. Dhaka Tribune. (2023). Attack on Ahmadiyya: What happened in Panchagarh?. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/282326/attack-on-ahmadiyya-what-happened-in-panchagarh
63. Dhaka Tribune. (2024a). Three bombs were recovered during a raid in a Narayanganj militant hideout. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/militancy/350813/police-cordon-off-suspected-militant-den-in
64. Dhaka Tribune. (2024b). Attacks on cultural landmarks: Fear and vandalism in a new era. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/354528/attacks-on-cultural-landmarks-fear-and-vandalism
65. Dhaka Tribune. (2025, January 8). Myanmar's drug empire poses a growing threat to Bangladesh. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/370248/myanmar%E2%80%99s-drug-empire-poses-growing-threat-to
66. Dieterich, C. (2024, August 9). Yunus forms Bangladesh's interim government, drawing from civil society. Le Monde. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/08/09/yunus-forms-bangladesh-s-interim-government-drawing-from-civil-society_6712020_4.html
67. Eisenstadt, T. A., Haque, T., Toman, M., & Wright, M. (2022). The “adaptation paradox” and citizen ambiguity over government climate policies: Survey findings from Bangladesh. Sustainability, 14(14), Article 8623. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148623
68. Ellis-Petersen, H., & Rahman, S. A. (2023, November 10). Full prisons and false charges: Bangladesh opposition faces pre-election crackdown. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/10/bangladesh-opposition-crackdown-election-sheikh-hasina-awami-league-bnp
69. Emrun, A. (2024, August 13). Violence in Bangladesh after Hasina’s ouster stirs fear among Hindu minority. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2024/08/violence-in-bangladesh-after-hasinas-ouster-stirs-fear-among-hindu-minority/
70. Eurasia Review. (2024, December 31). Bangladesh: Baul minstrels allege rise in "fundamentalist" threats. https://www.eurasiareview.com/31122024-bangladesh-baul-minstrels-allege-rise-in-fundamentalist-threats
71. European Commission. (2023). Humanitarian implementation plan (HIP) 1. https://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/funding/hip2023/echo_-xa_bud_2023_91000_v4.pdf
72. Faguet, J.-P. (2017). Transformation from below in Bangladesh: Decentralization, local governance, and systemic change. Modern Asian Studies, 51(6), 1668–1694. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X16000378
73. Fatemi, Md. N., Okyere, S. A., Diko, S. K., & Kita, M. (2020). Multi-level climate governance in Bangladesh via climate change mainstreaming: Lessons for local climate action in Dhaka city. Urban Science, 4(2), 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci4020024
74. Flick, U. (2018). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data collection. SAGE Publications.
75. CAP Freedom of Conscience. (2024, November 21). Ahmadiyya persecution in Bangladesh: A continuing human rights crisis. https://freedomofconscience.eu/ahmadiyya-persecution-in-bangladesh-a-continuing-human-rights-crisis
76. Galvin, G. C., Monteiro, S. O., & Tom. (2022, February 8). 86: Networks and network theory – Mark Granovetter [Podcast episode]. Talking About Organizations Podcast. https://www.talkingaboutorganizations.com/86-networks-and-network-theory-mark-granovetter/
77. Garfield, E. (1979). Citation indexing: Its theory and application. https://garfield.library.upenn.edu/cifwd.html
78. Gomersall, T. (2018). Complex adaptive systems: A new approach for understanding health practices. Health Psychology Review, 12(4), 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2018.1488603
79. Gordon, A., & Guzman, C. de. (2024, August 6). What to know about Muhammad Yunus and Bangladesh's uncertain future. TIME. https://time.com/7008243/bangladesh-faces-uncertain-future/
80. Government of Bangladesh. (2023). Non-state actor report on social protection. Australian Aid. https://socialprotection.gov.bd/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Non-State-Actor-Report-on-Social-Protection-Report-Final.pdf
81. Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics. Cambridge University Press.
82. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. (2020). Network analysis of climate change & disaster resilience actors working in Bagerhat District, Bangladesh. https://hhi.harvard.edu/sites/g/files/omnuum6866/files/humanitarianinitiative/files/bangladesh_network_analysis_report_final_anonymized.pdf
83. Haque, M. M. (2024). Protracted conflict in Myanmar and the role of international actors. SINERGI: Journal of Strategic Studies & International Affairs, 4(2), 117–126.
84. Hasan, K. (2025). Bangladesh 2009–2024: The return to authoritarianism under the Awami League and its implications for political sustainability. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 15(4), 1657–1679. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v15-i4/25282
85. Helmke, G., & Levitsky, S. (2004). Informal institutions and comparative politics: A research agenda. Perspectives on Politics, 2(4), 725–740.
86. Herbert, S. (2020, June). Conflict analysis of Bangladesh. GSDRC. https://gsdrc.org/publications/conflict-analysis-of-bangladesh/
87. Hindustan Times. (2018, August 7). Bangladesh students end nine-day-long protest over road safety laws. https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/bangladesh-students-end-nine-day-long-protest-over-road-safety-laws/story-nx7w8watalGmeC2VTYpi3I.html
88. Hollweck, T. (2016). Case study research design and methods (5th ed.). Sage. (Book review of Case Study Research and Design by R. K. Yin). The Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 30(1), 108–111. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjpe.30.1.108
89. Hossain, N. (2017). The significance of unruly politics in Bangladesh. In Politics and governance in Bangladesh (pp. 143–167). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315201337-8
90. Human Rights Forum Bangladesh. (2023, 6 Mart). Press conference protesting the attack on the Ahmadiyya in Panchagarh. https://web.archive.org/web/20230307/https://hrf-bd.org/press-conference-protesting-the-attack-on-the-ahmadiyya-in-panchagarh/
91. Human Rights Watch. (2024). Vandalism, attacks follow Bangladesh prime minister's exit. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/08/08/vandalism-attacks-follow-bangladesh-prime-ministers-exit
92. Huq, S., Khan, M., Islam, P., & Mirza, A. (2024). Climate change impacts in Bangladesh: What climate change means for a country and its people. https://icccad.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Bangladesh_Final_Covers_26-Jan-2024_ONLINE_compressed.pdf
93. Illius, S. (2021, June 15). State violence suppresses opposition to the Chinese coal plant in Bangladesh. Dialogue Earth. https://dialogue.earth/en/energy/state-violence-suppresses-ss-power-ne-plant-opposition-bangladesh/
94. International Council of Museums. (2024, August 23). Urgent call to protect Bangladesh’s endangered cultural heritage amidst ongoing crisis. https://icom.museum/en/news/urgent-call-to-protect-bangladeshs-endangered-cultural-heritage-amid-ongoing-crisis/
95. International Monetary Fund. (2020, June 12). Helping Bangladesh recover from COVID-19. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/06/11/na-06122020-helping-bangladesh-recover-from-covid-19
96. International Rescue Committee (IRC). (2024, February). Growing concern in Bangladesh as Myanmar conflict intensifies, causing a major uptick in people fleeing towards the border. https://www.rescue.org/press-release/growing-concern-bangladesh-myanmar-conflict-intensifies-causing-major-uptick-people
97. Inter Sector Coordination Group (ISCG). (2023). Executive summary. https://rohingyaresponse.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/JRP-2023-Report.pdf
98. Ishtiaque, A., Eakin, H., Vij, S., Chhetri, N., Rahman, F., & Huq, S. (2021). Multilevel governance in climate change adaptation in Bangladesh: Structure, processes, and power dynamics. Regional Environmental Change, 21(3), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01802-1
99. Islam, A. (2018, August 8). Why Bangladesh's protests are not just about road safety. DW.com (Deutsche Welle). https://www.dw.com/en/why-bangladesh-student-protests-are-not-just-about-road-safety/a-45007297
100. Islam, A. S. (2025, April 2). Attacks on Baul and Lalon culture by Islamic fundamentalists: Government's failure or patronage? BDDiGEST. https://en.bddigest.com/attacks-on-baul-and-lalon-culture-by-islamic-fundamentalists-governments-failure-or-patronage/
101. Islam, K. S. (2022, November 1). Mediating terror. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003271116-7
102. Jabr, F. (2023). John A. Long – Publications list. PublicationsList.org.
103. Jamil, I., & Panday, P. (2012). Inter-organizational coordination and corruption in urban policy implementation in Bangladesh: A case of Rajshahi City Corporation. International Journal of Public Administration, 35(5), 352–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2012.661169
104. Kabir, A. H. (2021). Network governance and the formation of the strategic plan in the higher education sector in Bangladesh. Journal of Education Policy, 36(4), 455–479. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1301883
105. Kivelä, M., Arenas, A., Barthélemy, M., Gleeson, J. P., Moreno, Y., & Porter, M. A. (2014). Multilayer networks. Journal of Complex Networks, 2(3), 203–271. https://doi.org/10.1093/comnet/cnu016
106. Khan, M. J. (2025, June 25). International day against drug abuse and illicit trafficking: Drug smuggling via air, land routes on the rise. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/international-day-against-drug-abuse-and-illicit-trafficking-drug-smuggling-air-land-routes-the-rise-3925841
107. Khan, M. J., & Bappi, E. H. (2024, November 6). Bangladesh now a transit for cocaine smuggling. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/bangladesh-now-transit-cocaine-smuggling-3746611
108. Kiron @ SecDev. (2025, April 9). Faith, fear, and fabrication: The strategic manipulation of faith in Bangladesh’s narrative wars. Substack. https://kironflashnote.substack.com/p/faith-fear-and-fabrication-the
109. Koch, N. (2023). Event ethnography: Studying power and politics through events. Geography Compass, 17, e12729. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12729
110. Koos, A. K., & Keulman, K. (2024). Conflicts rooted in socio-cultural animosities: A historical analysis. Cogent Social Sciences, 10(1), Article 2435587. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2435587
111. Kumar, N., & Moinuddin, A. K. M. (2016, July). Twenty hostages killed in Bangladesh siege. TIME. https://time.com/4391961/bangladesh-capital-dhaka-hostages-diplomatic-zone/
112. Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the social: An introduction to actor-network theory. Oxford University Press. https://academic.oup.com/book/52349
113. Loiwal, M. (2021, October 18). Attacks on Durga Puja pandals “pre-planned by vested groups”, says Bangladesh home minister. ABP Live. https://news.abplive.com/news/world/attacks-on-durga-puja-pandals-pre-planned-by-vested-groups-says-bangladesh-home-minister-1488360
114. Lorch, J. (2018). Islamization by secular ruling parties: The case of Bangladesh. Politics and Religion, 12(2), 257–282. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755048318000573
115. Luhmann, N. (1990). Essays on self-reference. Columbia University Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=YGnZexW1xP0C
116. Mahmud, A. H. (2017, July 18). Korail slum residents look to courts for respite. Dhaka Tribune. https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/dhaka/29960/korail-slum-residents-look-to-courts-for-respite
117. McKeith, S. (2014). Pharmaceutical patents in developing nations: Parallel importation and the doctrine of exhaustion. African Journal of Legal Studies, 6(2–3), 287–314. https://doi.org/10.1163/17087384-12342030
118. Meixler, E. (2018, December 11). "Journalism is under threat." Inside a Bangladeshi journalist's dangerous journey from photographer to prisoner. TIME. https://time.com/5475494/shahidul-alam-bangladesh-journalist-person-of-the-year-2018/
119. Migdal, J. S. (1988). Strong societies and weak states: State-society relations and state capabilities in the Third World. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691212852
120. Morshed, G., Tortajada, C., & Hossain, M. S. (2025). The state of climate change adaptation research in Bangladesh: A systematic literature review. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 30(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-025-10219-8
121. New Age. (2025, May 25). Govt should go tough against threats to traditional fairs. New Age. https://www.newagebd.net/post/editorial/265736/govt-should-go-tough-against-threats-to-traditional-fairs
122. ObserverBD. (2019, November 2). Bhurungamari declared a child marriage-free upazila. The Daily Observer. https://www.observerbd.com/news/226155
123. ObserverBD. (2016, August 28). Gulshan attack mastermind Tamim, two aides killed in N’ganj police raid. The Daily Observer. https://www.observerbd.com/news/31066
124. Panday, P. K., & Jamil, I. (2011). Challenges of coordination in implementing urban policy: The Bangladesh experience. Public Organization Review, 11(2), 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-010-0116-5
125. Papri, J. (2024, December 30). Bangladesh’s Baul minstrels allege rise in “fundamentalist” threats. BenarNews (Radio Free Asia). https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/bengali/bauls-claim-fundamentalist-threats-up-no-corroboration-12302024131036.html
126. Petit, N. (2010). The economics of parallel trade – Iconoclast views on a dogma of EU competition law. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1661884
127. Piliavsky, A. (Ed.). (2014). Patronage as politics in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107296930
128. Pokorny, J., Norman, A., Zanesco, A., Bauer-Wu, S., Sahdra, B., & Saron, C. (2017). Network analysis for the visualization and analysis of qualitative data. Psychological Methods, 23(1), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000129
129. Prothom Alo. (2022, November 12). BGB seizes crystal meth, yaba worth Tk 114.6m in Teknaf. Prothom Alo English. https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/local-news/t2ad78qhmp
130. Rabbani, A., Biju, N. R., Rizwan, A., & Sarker, M. (2018). Social network analysis of psychological morbidity in an urban slum of Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study based on a community census. BMJ Open, 8(7), e020180. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020180
131. Radio Free Asia. (2021, June 22). More than 100 activists urge China to halt Bangladesh coal power project. Radio Free Asia. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/coal-06222021174932.html
132. Rahman, S. A. (2024, August 28). Fact-checkers question accounts of “anti-Hindu” violence in Bangladesh. Voice of America. https://www.voanews.com/a/fact-checkers-question-accounts-of-anti-hindu-violence-in-bangladesh/7762644.html
133. Rana, M. S. (2018). The Dhaka attack: Lessons for Bangladesh. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 23(2), 16–24. https://www.academia.edu/36826146/The_Dhaka_Attack_Lessons_for_Bangladesh
134. Rashid, M. (2022, January 29). Alarming rise in Yaba trafficking. The Daily Observer. https://www.observerbd.com/news/350828
135. Reuters. (2024, August 9). Hundreds protest in Dhaka over violence against Hindus in Bangladesh. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/hundreds-protest-dhaka-over-violence-against-hindus-bangladesh-2024-08-09/
136. Rhodes, R. A. W. (1997). Understanding governance: Policy networks, governance, reflexivity and accountability. Open University Press.
137. Riaz, A. (2022, April 29). Bangladesh’s quiet slide into autocracy. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/bangladesh/2022-04-29/bangladeshs-quiet-slide-autocracy
138. Roy, S., & Saggi, K. (2012). Equilibrium parallel import policies and international market structure. Journal of International Economics, 87(2), 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2012.01.007
139. Saad, M. (2024, April 17). 12 drug kingpins amass Tk 178.44cr. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/crime-justice/news/12-drug-kingpins-amass-tk-17844cr-3589481
140. Safi, M. (2018, August 6). Bangladesh struggles to contain mass road-safety protests. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/06/bangladesh-mass-road-safety-protests-death-penalty-traffic
141. Saha, G., Kabir, Md. N., Islam, Md. S., Khandaker, A., & Chowdhury, P. (2024). Flash flood potential risk zonation mapping using GIS-based spatial multi-index model: A case study of Sunamganj District, Bangladesh. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-024-11907-6
142. Salahuddin, A. F. M., Hossain, M. I., Ali, I., & Azman, A. (2023). Social assistance programs during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh: Does a faith-based approach matter? Asian Social Work and Policy Review, 17, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/aswp.12261
143. Sami, M., Hoque, M., Moniruzzaman, M., & Pradhan, B. (2022). Spatial landslide risk assessment in a highly populated Rohingya refugee settlement area of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2223025/v1
144. Sarker, M. M. (2013). E-government implementation for Bangladesh: Actor Network Theory (ANT) approach. International Journal of Computer Applications, 3(3), 81–92. https://rspublication.com/ijca/jun13/6.pdf
145. Sarwar, M. R. (2021, August 11). Redesigning social safety net programmes to mitigate COVID-19 impacts. The Financial Express. https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/reviews/redesigning-social-safety-net-programmes-to-mitigate-covid-19-impacts-1628610585
146. South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP). (2017). Arrest data – Bangladesh (2017). https://www.satp.org/other-data/bangladesh/arrest_2017
147. Schöch, C. (2018). Zeta für die kontrastive Analyse literarischer Texte. In T. Bernhart, F. Jannidis, N. Lauer, & F. Schulz (Eds.), Quantitative Ansätze in den Literatur- und Geisteswissenschaften (pp. 77–94). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110523300-004
148. Sharmin, S., & Uddin, A. (2013). Characteristics of political culture in Bangladesh: A critical analysis from the perspective of political development and underdevelopment. Jagannath University Journal of Social Sciences, 1(1–2), 74–95. https://www.jnu.ac.bd/journal/assets/pdf/1_2_84.pdf
149. Shithi, W. Z. (2022, March 29). Challenging child marriage in Kurigram: A journey towards a dream. Prothom Alo English. https://en.prothomalo.com/opinion/challenging-child-marriage-in-kurigram-a-journey-towards-a-dream
150. Sifa, S. F., Mahmud, T., Tarin, M. A., & Haque, D. M. E. (2019). Event-based landslide susceptibility mapping using the weights-of-evidence (WoE) and modified frequency ratio (MFR) models: A case study of Rangamati district, Bangladesh. Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes, 4(3), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2019.1619222
151. Singha, S. P., Hossain, M. M., Rahman, M. A., & Sharmin, N. (2024). Investigation of graph-based clustering approaches along with graph neural networks for modeling armed conflict in Bangladesh. International Journal of Data Science and Analytics, 18(2), 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41060-024-00572-3
152. Snijders, T. A. B., van de Bunt, G. G., & Steglich, C. E. G. (2010). Introduction to stochastic actor-based models for network dynamics. Social Networks, 32(1), 44–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2009.02.004
153. Stewart, J., & Ayres, R. (2001). Systems theory and policy practice: An exploration. Policy Sciences, 34(1), 79–94. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4532523
154. Subramanian, S. (2016, July 3). How will Bangladesh respond to the ISIS-inspired attack in Dhaka? The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-will-bangladesh-respond-to-the-isis-inspired-attack-in-dhaka
155. Sullivan, D. P. (2022, December 13). Hope amid despair: Finding solutions for Rohingya in Bangladesh. Refugees International. https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports-briefs/hope-amid-despair-finding-solutions-for-rohingya-in-bangladesh/
156. Sun, D. (2019, March). Over 1,000 listed yaba pushers are out of reach. Daily Sun. https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/375111
157. Sundram, P. (2025). Network governance in ASEAN: Fostering regional cooperation and integration. Frontiers in Political Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2025.1434595
158. Suykens, B., & Islam, A. (2013). Hartal as a complex political performance: General strikes and the organisation of (local) power in Bangladesh. Contributions to Indian Sociology, 47(1), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/006996671204700103
159. Terstriep, J., & Rehfeld, D. (2015). Middle range theorizing: Bridging the micro and meso level. SIMPACT Working Paper.
160. The Business Standard. (2019, September 23). Narayanganj explosives similar to bombs used in recent police attack. https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/crime/police-cordon-militant-den-narayanganj
161. The Business Standard. (2022, September 19). Korail slum dwellers block Mohakhali Road in protest against eviction. https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/korail-slum-dwellers-block-mohakhali-road-protesting-eviction-499034
162. The Business Standard. (2024a, June 29). The tale of Korail, a city inside a city. https://www.tbsnews.net/features/panorama/tale-korail-city-inside-city-887291
163. The Business Standard. (2024b, August 10). Why are the cultural symbols being attacked? https://www.tbsnews.net/features/panorama/why-are-cultural-symbols-being-attacked-913221
164. The Business Standard. (2025, July 16). RAB, BGB seize illegal arms in separate Teknaf raids; 1 arrested. https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/rab-bgb-seize-illegal-arms-separate-teknaf-raids-1-arrested-1189531
165. The Daily Star. (2024). Cultural heritage under attack. https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/cultural-heritage-under-attack-3671896
166. The Economist. (2024, January 8). Bangladesh’s prime minister, Sheikh Hasina, wins a fifth term. https://www.economist.com/asia/2024/01/08/bangladeshs-prime-minister-sheikh-hasina-wins-a-fifth-term
167. The New Nation. (2022, January 16). Kurigram sets an example in reducing child marriage. https://dailynewnation.com/kurigram-sets-an-example-in-reducing-child-marriage/
168. The Observers. (2012, April 10). Slum destruction leaves thousands on the street. The Observers – France 24. https://observers.france24.com/en/20120410-slum-destruction-thousands-street-child-dead-karail-korail-karail-dhaka-bangladesh-protest-demolition-shanties
169. UK Government. (2012). Moving backwards: Korail slum eviction. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a9aed915d622c0007f7/Korail-Eviction-Report.pdf
170. UK Government. (2024). Country policy and information note: Political situation, Bangladesh, December 2024 (accessible). GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-political-situation-bangladesh-december-2024-accessible
171. Umpleby, S. A., Medvedeva, T. A., & Lepskiy, V. (2019). Recent developments in cybernetics, from cognition to social systems. Cybernetics and Systems, 50(4), 367–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/01969722.2019.1574326
172. UNESCO-ICHCAP. (2017). Cultural survey of Bangladesh. UNESCO International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region. https://www.unesco-ichcap.org/boardDownload.es?bid=A105&gubun=view&list_no=13541
173. USAID. (2024). Violence and conflict assessment. The Policy Practice. https://thepolicypractice.com/violence-and-conflict-assessment-usaid-2024
174. Warren, S., Sauser, B., & Nowicki, D. (2019). A bibliographic and visual exploration of the historic impact of soft systems methodology on academic research and theory. Systems, 7(1), Article Number 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems7010010
175. Wasima, S. (2024). Youth-led movements: The impact of student protests in making political change in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies. https://bipss.org.bd/pdf/saraf_august.pdf
176. Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (2012, June 5). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511815478
177. Wendt, A. (1987). The agent-structure problem in international relations theory. International Organization, 41(3), 335–370. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002081830002751X
178. Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
179. Young, O. R. (1991). Political leadership and regime formation: On the development of institutions in international society. International Organization, 45(3), 281–308. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300033117
180. Zafarullah, H. (2021). Trapped in a cul-de-sac? The orbit of governance reform in Bangladesh. Dhaka University Law Journal, 32(1), 112–131. https://doi.org/10.3329/dulj.v32i1.57183