Monkeypox Virus: Current Status And Global Health Ipmlications

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1, 208 - 216, 26.03.2025

Semih Eriten

Öz

Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a zoonotic disease agent belonging to the Orthopoxvirus family. First discovered in monkeys in 1970, the virus was later detected in humans and became endemic in Central and West African countries. In 2022, MPXV turned into a global pandemic and was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organisation. This review article comprehensively examines the current status of MPXV, its transmission routes, prevention strategies and implications for global health. The study highlights areas for future research and emphasises the importance of global collaboration against this emerging health threat. With the aim of raising awareness about MPXV, supporting informed decision-making and developing intervention strategies to reduce transmission, this review aims to contribute to efforts to protect public health.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Monkeypox virus (MPXV), Zoonotic disease, Global pandemic, Public health emergency, Contamination prevention

Kaynakça

• CDC. About Mpox [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Sep 3]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/about/index.html
• Durski KN. Emergence of monkeypox—west and central Africa, 1970–2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2024 Sep 5];67. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6710a5.htm
• Lamptey E, Yaidoo S, Asiedua E, Boakye EO, Banoya M tia, Senkyire EK. Monkey pox: Rethinking COVID-19 to project future strategies against emerging and evolving pathogens. Health Care Sci. 2022;1(2):129–33.
• WHO. Mpox [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Sep 3]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mpox
• Reed KD, Melski JW, Graham MB, Regnery RL, Sotir MJ, Wegner MV, et al. The Detection of Monkeypox in Humans in the Western Hemisphere. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jan 22;350(4):342–50.
• Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox—A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16(2):e0010141.
• Kraemer MU, Tegally H, Pigott DM, Dasgupta A, Sheldon J, Wilkinson E, et al. Tracking the 2022 monkeypox outbreak with epidemiological data in real-time. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(7):941–2.
• Bonwitt J, Dawson M, Kandeh M, Ansumana R, Sahr F, Brown H, et al. Unintended consequences of the ‘bushmeat ban’ in West Africa during the 2013-2016 Ebola virus disease epidemic. Soc Sci Med 1982 [Internet]. 2018 Mar [cited 2024 Sep 4];200. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29421463/
• WHO. Monkeypox: public health advice for gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 4]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/25-05-2022-monkeypox--public-health-advice-for-gay--bisexual-and-other-men-who-have-sex-with-men
• Breman JG, Steniowski MV, Zanotto E, Gromyko AI, Arita I. Human monkeypox, 1970-79. Bull World Health Organ. 1980;58(2):165.
• Rimoin AW, Mulembakani PM, Johnston SC, Lloyd Smith JO, Kisalu NK, Kinkela TL, et al. Major increase in human monkeypox incidence 30 years after smallpox vaccination campaigns cease in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2010 Sep 14;107(37):16262–7.
• Likos AM, Sammons SA, Olson VA, Frace AM, Li Y, Olsen-Rasmussen M, et al. A tale of two clades: monkeypox viruses. J Gen Virol. 2005 Oct 1;86(10):2661–72.
• Vivancos R, Anderson C, Blomquist P, Balasegaram S, Bell A, Bishop L, et al. Community transmission of monkeypox in the United Kingdom, April to May 2022. Eurosurveillance [Internet]. 2022 Jun 2 [cited 2024 Sep 4];27(22). Available from: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.22.2200422
• CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2023 [cited 2024 Sep 4]. Monkeypox Technical Reports. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/cases-data/technical-report/report-3.html
• Thornhill JP, Barkati S, Walmsley S, Rockstroh J, Antinori A, Harrison LB, et al. Monkeypox Virus Infection in Humans across 16 Countries — April–June 2022. N Engl J Med. 2022 Aug 25;387(8):679–91.
• Khan S, Akbar SMF, Yahiro T, Mahtab MA, Kimitsuki K, Nishizono A. Unprecedented rise of monkeypox in Europe and America: Are Asian countries ready for a new outbreak during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic? J Glob Health [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 4];12. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9425425/
• Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, Brooks T, Chand M, Flegg P, et al. Human-to-human transmission of monkeypox virus, United Kingdom, October 2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(4):782.
• Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses. 2020;12(11):1257.
• Esposito JJ, Sammons SA, Frace AM, Osborne JD, Olsen-Rasmussen M, Zhang M, et al. Genome Sequence Diversity and Clues to the Evolution of Variola (Smallpox) Virus. Science. 2006 Aug 11;313(5788):807–12.
• Moss B. Poxviridae: the viruses and their replication. 2001 [cited 2024 Sep 5]; Available from: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20023085623
• Begum JPS, Ngangom L, Semwal P, Painuli S, Sharma R, Gupta A. Emergence of monkeypox: a worldwide public health crisis. Hum Cell. 2023 May 1;36(3):877–93.
• McFadden G. Poxvirus tropism. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005;3(3):201–13.
• CDC. Biosafety Laboratory Guidance for Handling and Processing Mpox Specimens [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/lab-personnel/lab-procedures.html
• Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, Snell LB, Wong W, Houlihan CF, et al. Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(8):1153–62.
• Gul I, Liu C, Yuan X, Du Z, Zhai S, Lei Z, et al. Current and Perspective Sensing Methods for Monkeypox Virus. Bioengineering. 2022 Oct;9(10):571.
• Neubauer H, Reischl U, Ropp S, Esposito JJ, Wolf H, Meyer H. Specific detection of monkeypox virus by polymerase chain reaction. J Virol Methods. 1998;74(2):201–7.
• Karem KL, Reynolds M, Braden Z, Lou G, Bernard N, Patton J, et al. Characterization of Acute-Phase Humoral Immunity to Monkeypox: Use of Immunoglobulin M Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Detection of Monkeypox Infection during the 2003 North American Outbreak. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2005 Jul;12(7):867–72.
• Otieno JR, Ruis C, Onoja BA, Kuppalli K, Hoxha A, Nitsche A, et al. Global genomic surveillance of monkeypox virus. medRxiv. 2024;2024–08.
• ECDC. Factsheet for health professionals on mpox [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/monkeypox/factsheet-health-professionals
• Doty JB, Malekani JM, Kalemba LN, Stanley WT, Monroe BP, Nakazawa YU, et al. Assessing monkeypox virus prevalence in small mammals at the human–animal interface in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Viruses. 2017;9(10):283.
• Grant R, Nguyen LBL, Breban R. Modelling human-to-human transmission of monkeypox. Bull World Health Organ. 2020;98(9):638.
• Endo A, Murayama H, Abbott S, Ratnayake R, Pearson CAB, Edmunds WJ, et al. Heavy-tailed sexual contact networks and monkeypox epidemiology in the global outbreak, 2022. Science. 2022 Oct 7;378(6615):90–4.
• Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human monkeypox: epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin. 2019;33(4):1027–43.
• Ullah M, Li Y, Munib K, Zhang Z. Epidemiology, host range, and associated risk factors of monkeypox: an emerging global public health threat. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1160984.
• Meena RK. Monkeypox: A New Global Threat [Internet]. Springer India 7th Floor, Vijaya Building, 17, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi …; 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.indianpediatrics.net/july2022/585.pdf
• Harapan H, Ophinni Y, Megawati D, Frediansyah A, Mamada SS, Salampe M, et al. Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review. Viruses. 2022 Sep 29;14(10):2155.
• CDC. Clinical Recognition [İnternet]. 2023 [cited 2024 Sep 6]. Availablefrom: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/clinicians/clinical-recognition.html
• Carvajal A, Gracia PVD. Monkeypox and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol Mfm. 2022 Nov;4(6):100746.
• Antinori A, Mazzotta V, Vita S, Carletti F, Tacconi D, Lapini LE, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of four cases of monkeypox support transmission through sexual contact, Italy, May 2022. Eurosurveillance [Internet]. 2022 Jun 2 [cited 2024 Sep 6];27(22). Available, from: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.22.2200421
• Patel A, Bilinska J, Tam JC, Fontoura DDS, Mason CY, Daunt A, et al. Clinical features and novel presentations of human monkeypox in a central London centre during the 2022 outbreak: descriptive case series. bmj [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 6];378. Available from: https://www.bmj.com/content/378/bmj-2022-072410.abstract
• Obermeier PE, Buder SC, Hillen U. Poxvirus infections in dermatology – the neglected, the notable, and the notorious. JDDG J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2024 Jan;22(1):56–93.
• Azzi A. Unusual Monkeypox virus outbreak in 2022: Phenotypic and molecular characteristics. Asp Mol Med. 2023;1:100001.
• Sardana K, Sachdeva S, Narula S, Gogate S. Triaging cases of fever with vesicular rash relevant to the monkeypox epidemic. Trop Doct. 2023 Oct;53(4):481–8.
• WHO. Surveillance, case investigation and contact tracing for Monkeypox: Interim guidance [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5].
• Yinka-Ogunleye A, Aruna O, Dalhat M, Ogoina D, McCollum A, Disu Y, et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox in Nigeria in 2017–18: a clinical and epidemiological report. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(8):872–9.
• Altindis M, Puca E, Shapo L. Diagnosis of monkeypox virus–An overview. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2022;50:102459.
• McCollum AM, Damon IK. Human monkeypox. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(2):260–7.
• Kaler J, Hussain A, Flores G, Kheiri S, Desrosiers D. Monkeypox: a comprehensive review of transmission, pathogenesis, and manifestation. Cureus [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5];14(7). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9345383/
• Petersen BW. Use of vaccinia virus smallpox vaccine in laboratory and health care personnel at risk for occupational exposure to orthopoxviruses—recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2024 Sep 5];65. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6510a2.htm
• WHO. Risk communication and community engagement (RCCE) for monkeypox outbreaks: interim guidance, 24 June 2022 [Internet]. World Health Organization; 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/357184/WHO-MPX-RCCE-2022.1-eng.pdf?sequence=1
• Rao AK. Monkeypox in a traveler returning from Nigeria—Dallas, Texas, July 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5];71. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7114a1.htm
• Kmiec D, Kirchhoff F. Monkeypox: A New Threat? Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Jul 17;23(14):7866.
• WHO. Monkeypox Strategic Preparedness, Readiness, and Response Plan (SPRP) [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/monkeypox-strategic-preparedness--readiness--and-response-plan-(sprp)
• Titanji BK, Tegomoh B, Nematollahi S, Konomos M, Kulkarni PA. Monkeypox: a contemporary review for healthcare professionals. In: Open forum infectious diseases [Internet]. Oxford University Press; 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5]. p. ofac310. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ofid/article-abstract/9/7/ofac310/6615388
• Jenkins ZN. Understanding Monkeypox. 2022 [cited 2024 Sep 5]; Available,from: https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/pharmacy_media_contributions/314
• Isidro J, Borges V, Pinto M, Sobral D, Santos JD, Nunes A, et al. Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus. Nat Med. 2022;28(8):1569–72.
• Babkin IV, Babkina IN. The origin of the variola virus. Viruses. 2015;7(3):1100–12.
• Hendrickson RC, Wang C, Hatcher EL, Lefkowitz EJ. Orthopovirus genome evolution: the role of gene loss. Viruses. 2010;2(9):1933.
• Happi C, Adetifa I, Mbala P, Njouom R, Nakoune E, Happi A, et al. Urgent need for a non-discriminatory and non-stigmatizing nomenclature for monkeypox virus. PLoS Biol. 2022;20(8):e3001769.
• Deacon H. Towards a sustainable theory of health‐related stigma: lessons from the HIV/AIDS literature. J Community Appl Soc Psychol. 2006 Nov;16(6):418–25.
• Raccagni AR, Candela C, Mileto D, Canetti D, Bruzzesi E, Rizzo A, et al. Monkeypox infection among men who have sex with men: PCR testing on seminal fluids. J Infect. 2022;85(5):573.
• Jaiswal J, LoSchiavo C, Perlman DC. Disinformation, Misinformation and Inequality-Driven Mistrust in the Time of COVID-19: Lessons Unlearned from AIDS Denialism. AIDS Behav. 2020 Oct;24(10):2776–80.
• Manirambona E, Wilkins L, Lucero-Prisno III DE. COVID-19 and its threat to refugees in Africa. Health Promot Perspect. 2021;11(3):263.
• Shang Y, Li H, Zhang R. Effects of pandemic outbreak on economies: evidence from business history context. Front Public Health. 2021;9:632043.
• Manirambona E, Musa SS, Shomuyiwa DO, Salam FA, John OO, Dinyo DGA, et al. The monkeypox virus: A public health challenge threatening Africa. Public Health Chall. 2022;1(4):e33.