Alternatif İpek Kaynağı Olan Trichoptera İpeğinin Bazı Özellikleri, Tasarım, Biyomalzeme Olarak Kullanım Alanları ve Kumaş Tasarımda Örnek Uygulama

Öz

İpek lifi, tekstil endüstrisi açısından büyük öneme ve değere sahiptir. Bu nedenle, ipek üzerine yapılan çalışmaların büyük bir kısmı, özellikle ticari açıdan değerli olan ipek böceği (Bombyx mori) başta olmak üzere, kara ortamında yaşayan Lepidoptera (güve ve kelebekler) türlerine odaklanmıştır. Ancak, ipeği çeşitli şekillerde kullanan, ekolojik açıdan önemli ve daha az bilinen böcek takımlarından biri de genellikle “doğanın su altı mimarları” olarak anılan Trichoptera takımına ait türlerdir. Lepidoptera’ya benzer şekilde, bazı Trichoptera türleri de ürettikleri ipeği su altında çeşitli yapılar inşa etmek ve larval evrelerinin sonunda metamorfoz için koza oluşturmak amacıyla kullanmaktadır. Bu ipeğin yapışkan (adeziv) özelliği, Trichoptera ipeğini diğer böcek ipeklerinden ayıran en önemli farktır. Ancak tüm potansiyeline rağmen, Trichoptera ipeği üzerine yapılan çalışmalar dünya genelinde sınırlı kalmıştır. Yine de bu ipek; sürdürülebilir, biyouyumlu, biyolojik olarak parçalanabilir ve üretimi görece kolay olması nedeniyle oldukça umut verici görülmektedir. Bu literatür taramasında, Trichoptera ipeğinin morfolojik, fizyolojik, anatomik ve yapısal özellikleri incelenmiş; ipek üretimi, larval konut tipleri, deneysel çalışmalar ve potansiyel uygulama alanları ele alınmıştır. Türkiye bağlamında, Trichoptera ipeği üzerine yapılan çalışmalar, tekstil ve sağlık sektörleri açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Su altında yaşamaları ve ürettikleri ipekle mimari yapılar oluşturmaları sayesinde bu böcekler, yalnızca tekstil, moda ve aksesuar tasarımı açısından değil, aynı zamanda mimarlık ve biyomimetik mühendislik gibi alanlarda da ilham kaynağı olabilecek niteliktedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Doğal elyaf
• Trichoptera
• Tekstil

Selected Properties of Trichoptera Silk as an Alternative Silk Source: Design Aspects, Biomaterial Applications, and an Example in Textile Design

Öz

Silk fiber holds significant importance and value in the textile industry. Consequently, most studies on silk have primarily focused on terrestrial Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), particularly the commercially valuable silkworm, Bombyx mori. However, one of the lesser-known yet ecologically significant insect orders that utilize silk in diverse ways is Trichoptera—a primarily aquatic group often referred to as "nature’s underwater architects." Similar to Lepidoptera, several Trichoptera species produce silk to construct various underwater structures and to spin cocoons for metamorphosis during the final larval stage. A key distinguishing feature of Trichoptera silk is its adhesive nature, which sets it apart from other types of insect silk. Despite its potential, global research on Trichoptera silk remains limited. Nevertheless, this silk is considered highly promising due to its sustainability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and relative ease of production. This literature review explores the morphological, physiological, anatomical, and structural characteristics of Trichoptera silk. It also discusses the silk production mechanisms, types of larval cases, experimental studies, and potential application areas. In the context of Turkey, research on Trichoptera silk is particularly valuable for both the textile and healthcare industries. The silk produced by these aquatic insects holds the potential to inspire innovations not only in textile, fashion, and accessory design, but also in fields such as architecture and biomimetic engineering.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Natural fiber
• Trichoptera
• Textile

Kaynakça

1. Ashton, N. N., Roe, D. R., Weiss, R. B., Cheatham, T. E., III, & Stewart, R. J. (2013). Self-tensioning aquatic caddisfly silk: Ca²⁺-dependent structure, strength, and load cycle hysteresis. Biomacromolecules, 14(10), 3668–3681. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm401036z
2. Ashton, N. N., & Stewart, R. J. (2015). Self-recovering caddisfly silk: Energy dissipating, Ca²⁺-dependent, double dynamic network fibers. Soft Matter, 11(9), 1667–1676. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4SM0243 5D
3. Ashton, N. N., & Stewart, R. J. (2019). Aquatic caddisworm silk is solidified by environmental metal ions during the natural fiber spinning process. FASEB Journal, 33(1),572 583. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj. 201801029R
4. Audaces. (2025). Surface design: Discover its role in the fashion industry. https://audaces.com/en/blog/ surface-design
5. Benyus, J. M. (1997). Biomimicry: Innovation inspired by nature. William Morrow.
6. Bhushan, B. (2009). Biomimetics: Lessons from nature—An overview. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 367(1893), 1445–1486. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2009.0011
7. Darılmaz, M. C., & Salur, A. (2015). Annotated catalogue of the Turkish caddisflies (Insecta: Trichoptera). Munis Entomology & Zoology, 10(Suppl.), 521–734.
8. Duprat, H. (2007). Artist project/Trichopterae. Cabinet Magazine, (25). https://www.cabinetmagazine. org/issues/25/duprat.php

9. Duprat, H., & Besson, C. (2004). The wonderful caddis worm: Sculptural work in collaboration with Trichoptera. Leonardo/ISAST. https://leonardo.info/isast/articles/duprat/duprat.html
10. Frandsen, P. B., Bursell, M. G., Taylor, A. M., Wilson, S. B., Steeneck, A., & Stewart, R. J. (2019). Exploring the underwater silken architectures of caddisworms: comparative silkomics across two caddisfly suborders. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 374(1784), 20190053. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0206
11. Gong, L., Shin, J. (2013). The Innovative Application of Surface Texture in Fashion and Textile Design. The Korean Fashion & Textile Research Journal. 15, 336-346. http://dx.doi.org/10.5805/SFTI. 2013.15.3.336
12. Hansell, M. (2005). Animal architecture. Oxford University Press. 338 pages.
13. Hameed, U. (2025). Basics Surface Design in Textiles. wwwdrumerhameed.com, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.10687.83364
14. Heckenhauer, J., Stewart, R. J., Ríos Touma, B., Powell, A., Frandsen, P. B., & Pauls, S. U. (2023). Characterization of the primary structure of the major silk gene, h-fibroin, across caddisfly (Trichoptera) suborders. iScience, 26, 107253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.107253
15. Holzenthal, R. W., Blahnik, R. J., Prather, A. L., & Kjer, K. M. (2007). Order Trichoptera Kirby, 1813 (Insecta): Caddisflies. Zootaxa, 1668, 639 698.
16. Holzenthal, R. W., Thomson, R. E., & Ríos Touma, B. (2015). Order Trichoptera. In J. H. Thorp & A. P. Covich (Eds.), Thorp and Covich’s freshwater invertebrates (pp. 965 1002). Academic Press.
17. Hosey, L. (2012). The shape of green: Aesthetics, ecology, and design. Island Press.
18. Karahan, N., & Mangut, M. (2011). Tekstil lifleri. Kitap/Ders Kitabı, Ekin Basım Yayım Dağıtım, Bursa
19. Kim, H. J., Sun, Y., & Moon, M. (2020). Fine structure of the silk spinning system in the caddisworm, Hydatophylax nigrovittatus (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae). Applied Microscopy, 50, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42649-020-00036-5
20. Akyıldız, E., Küçükbasmacı, İ. (2024). Hydropsyche instabilis Curtis 1834 (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) Larvalarının Ağ Örme Davranışlarının ve İpek Ağ Yapılarının İncelenmesi. Memba Kastamonu Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(2), 121-130. https://doi.org/10.58626/menba.1530718
21. Lane, D. D., Kaur, S., Weerasakare, G. M., & Stewart, R. J. (2015). Toughened hydrogels inspired by aquatic caddisworm silk. Soft Matter, 11(35), 6981–6990. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5SM01297J
22. Myers, W. (2015). Bio Art – Altered Realities. Thames & Hudson. P 256.
23. Michalak, M., Tszydel, M., Bilska, J., & Krucińska, I. (2005). Products of Caddis-fly Larvae (Trichoptera) Silk Glands as a New Natural Textile Fibre. Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 13(6), 54 59.
24. Morse, J. C. (2024). Trichoptera World Checklist. Clemson University. https://trichopt.app.clemson.edu/ welcome.php
25. Oxman, N. (2010). Material-based design computation (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Architecture). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://dspace.mit.edu/entities/publication/f21bf701-2a38-492a-bc13-2a0883b2e7d1
26. Prommi, T. O. (2018). Ecological and economic importance of Trichoptera (aquatic insect). Journal of Food, Health and Bioenvironmental Science, 11(1), 1 6.
27. Ross, H. H. (1964). Evolution of caddisworm cases and nets. American Zoologist, 4(2), 209 220.
28. Ross, H. H. (1967). The evolution and past dispersal of the Trichoptera. Annual Review of Entomology, 12, 169-206. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.12.010167.001125
29. Rouhová, L., Sehadová, H., Pauchová, L., Hradilová, M., Žurovcová, M., Šerý, M., Rindoš, M., & Žurovec, M. (2022). Using the multi-omics approach to reveal the silk composition in Plectrocnemia conspersa. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 9, 945239. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fmolb.2022.945239
30. Rouhová, L., Zurovcova, M., Hradilova, M., Sery, M., Sehadova, H., & Zurovec, M. (2024). Comprehensive analysis of silk proteins and gland compartments in Limnephilus lunatus, a case making trichopteran. BMC Genomics, 25, 472. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-024-10381-4
31. Sehnal, T., Sutherland, T. (2008). Silks produced by insect labial glands. Prion, 2(3), 145-153. https://doi.org/10.4161/pri.2.4.7489
32. Stevens, P. S. (1974). Patterns in nature. Little, Brown and Company.
33. Sipahiler, F. (2024). The Limnephilus bipunctatus species group in Turkey with the descriptions of two new species (Trichoptera, Limnephilidae). Zootaxa, 5406 (1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.11646/ zootaxa.5406.1.5
34. Stewart, R. J., Frandsen, P. B., Pauls, S. U., & Heckenhauer, J. (2022). Conservation of three dimensional structure of Lepidoptera and Trichoptera L fibroins for 290 million years. Molecules, 27, 2341. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27185945
35. Stewart, R. J., Wang, C. S. (2010). Adaptation of caddisfly larval silks to aquatic habitats by phosphorylation of H-fibroin serines. Biomacromolecules, 11(4), 969–974. https://doi.org/10.1021/ bm901426d
36. Townsend, K., Goulding, R. (2011). The interaction of two and three dimensional design in textiles and fashion. In A. Briggs Goode & K. Townsend (Eds.), Textile Design: Principles, Advances and Applications (pp. 288–324). Woodhead Publishing.
37. Triplehorn, C. A., & Johnson, N. F. (1970). Borror and Delong's Introduction to the study of insects (6th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. 875 pages.
38. Tsukada, M., Khan, M. M. R., Inoue, E., Kimura, G., Hun, J. Y., Mishima, M., & Hirabayashi, K. (2010). Physical properties and structure of aquatic silk fiber from Stenopsyche marmorata. Int.Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 46(1), 54‑58 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2009.10.003
39. Tszydel, M., Zabłotni, A., Wojciechowska, D., Michalak, M., Krucińska, I., Szustakiewicz, K., Maj, M., Jaruszewska, A., & Strzelecki, J. (2015). Research on possible medical use of silk produced by caddisfly larvae of Hydropsyche angustipennis (Trichoptera, Insecta). Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 45, 142 153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.02.003
40. Vincent, J. F. V., Bogatyreva, O. A., Bogatyrev, N. R., Bowyer, A., & Pahl, A. K. (2006). Biomimetics: Its practice and theory. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 3(9), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2006.0127
41. Wiggins, G. B. (1996). Larvae of the North American caddisfly genera (Trichoptera) (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press, 457 pages.
42. Wiggins, G.B. (2004) Caddisflies: the Underwater Architects, University of Toronto Press
43. Wiggins, G. B., & Currie, D. C. (2008). Trichoptera families. In R. W. Merritt, K. W. Cummins, & M. B. Berg (Eds.), An introduction to the aquatic insects of North America (4th ed., pp. 439 480). Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
44. Yonemura, N., Mita, K., Tamura, T., Sehnal, F., 2009. Conservation of silk genes in Trichoptera and Lepidoptera. Journal of Molecular Evoluation, 68, 641–653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00239-009-9234-5