Impact of the Intervention Program on Parent-Adolescent Conflict and Adolescent Well-Being During the Pandemic Period

Abstract

The pandemic period (COVID-19) had a profound adverse impact on adolescent mental health and parent-adolescent relationships. In this study, we examine the effects of the Reality Therapy Parent-Adolescent Relationship Improvement Program (PARIP), consisting of seven sessions, on reducing parent-adolescent conflict and increasing adolescent well-being during the pandemic period. To this end, a 2×3 mixed design (split-plot) with an experimental and control group was used. In addition, qualitative data (×2) were employed to explain the quantitative data. The experimental and control groups consisted of 11 adolescents (five females and six males). The data were collected using the Adolescent-Parent Conflict Scale (APCS), the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-Being (EPOCH), and the Personal Information Form (PIF). The results revealed that the intervention was effective in reducing parent-adolescent conflict. However, no effect of the intervention on increasing adolescents’ well-being was observed.

Keywords

• parent-adolescent conflict
• adolescent well-being
• pandemic period
• intervention
• reality therapy

References

1. Adams, R., & Laursen, B. (2001). The organization and dynamics of adolescent conflict with parents and friends. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00097.x
2. Alaie, I., Låftman, S. B., Jonsson, U. & Bohman, H. (2020). Parent–youth conflict as a predictor of depression in adulthood: a 15-year follow-up of a community-based cohort. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(4), 527-536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01368-8
3. Ayres, K., & Ledford J. R.. (2014). Dependent Measures and Measurement Systems. In J. R. Ledford & D, L. Gast (2nd. Eds.), Single case research methodology (pp. 129-165). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203521892 (Original work published 2009).
4. Barber, B. K. (1994). Cultural, family, and personal contexts of parent–adolescent conflict. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56(2), 375–386. https://doi.org/10.2307/353106
5. Bilsky, S. A., Friedman, H. P., Karlovich, A., Smith, M. & Leen-Feldner, E. W. (2020). The interaction between sleep disturbances and anxiety sensitivity in relation to adolescent anger responses to parent adolescent conflict. Journal of Adolescence, 84(2), 69-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.08.005
6. Bolton, G. & Delderfield R. (2018) Reflective practice: Writing and professional development, (5nd. Eds.), Sage Publications. http://digital.casalini.it/9781526450517 (Original work published 2010).
7. Bolton, G. (2005). Reflective practice: Writing and professional development (2nd ed.). Sage. Bradshaw, J., Hoelscher, P. & Richardson, D. (2007). An index of child well-being in the European Union. Social Indicators Research, 80(1), 133-177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-006-9024-z
8. Bull, M., Ball, R. & Livanou, M. A (2023). Qualitative Study Exploring Parents’ Experiences of Caring for an Adolescent Child with Conduct Problems during the Covid-19 Lockdowns. Journal of Child Family Study, 32, 2482–2494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02627-8

9. Chaplin, T. M., Sinha, R., Simmons, J. A., Healy, S. M., Mayes, L. C., Hommer, R. E., & Crowley, M. J. (2012). Parent–adolescent conflict interactions and adolescent alcohol use. Addictive Behaviors, 37(5), 605-612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.01.004
10. Christensen T. M. & Gray, N. D. (2002). The application of reality therapy and choice theory in relationship counseling. Interview with robert wubbolding. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 10(2), 244-248. https://doi.org/10.1177/10664807021020
11. Collins, W. A., Laursen, B., Mortensen, N., Luebker, C. & Ferreira, M. (1997). Conflict processes and transitions in parent and peer relationships: Implications for autonomy and regulation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12(2), 178-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489712200
12. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. (4nd. Eds.), Sage Publications. https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/qualitative-inquiry-and-research design/book246896#resources (Original work published 2006).
13. Darling, K. E., Ruzicka, E. B., Fahrenkamp, A. J., & Sato, A. F. (2019). Perceived stress and obesity-promoting eating behaviors in adolescence: The role of parent-adolescent conflict. Families, Systems, & Health, 37(1), 62-67. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000387
14. Davidson, J., & Versluys, M. (2000). Conflict resolution training within a school setting. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 17(2), 117-134. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0816512200028194
15. De Goede, I. H. A., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Developmental changes in adolescents’ perceptions of relationships with their parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9286-7
16. De Los Reyes, A., Ohannessian, C. M. & Laird, R. D. (2016). Developmental changes in discrepancies between adolescents’ and their mothers’ views of family communication. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 790-797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0275-7
17. Demir, İ. (2007). Young people’s identity structures: A qualitative examination across different localities [Doctoral dissertation, Istanbul University].
18. Doll, B. & Kratochwill, T. (1992). Treatment of parent-adolescent conflict through behavioral technology training: A case study. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 3(4), 281-300. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532768xjepc0304_1
19. Duineveld, J. J., Parker, P. D., Ryan, R. M., Ciarrochi, J. & Salmela-Aro, K. (2017). The link between perceived maternal and paternal autonomy support and adolescent well-being across three major educational transitions. Developmental Psychology, 53(10), 1978- 1994. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000364
20. Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Spinrad, T. L., Gershoff, E. T., Valiente, C., Losoya, S. H., Zhou, Q., Cumberland, A., Liew, J., Reiser, M., Maxon, E., Smetana, J. G., & Darling, N. (2008). Understanding mother-adolescent conflict discussions: Concurrent and across-time prediction from youths' dispositions and parenting. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73(2), vii–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2008.00470.x
21. Eryılmaz, A., & Mammadov, M. (2016). Examining the psychometric properties of the Adolescent-Parent Conflict Scale. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 23(3), 201–210.
22. Feeney, B. C. & Cassidy, J. (2003). Reconstructive memory related to adolescent-parent conflict interactions: The influence of attachment-related representations on immediate perceptions and changes in perceptions over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 945-955.
23. Fitzgerald, A. L. (2011). Reality therapy for marital and family systems counseling. Counseling & Wellness: A Professional Counseling Journal, 2, 88-101.
24. Fitzpatrick, O., Carson, A., & Weisz, J. R. (2021). Using mixed methods to identify the primary mental health problems and needs of children, adolescents, and their caregivers during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 52, 1082-1093. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01089-z
25. Fosco, G. M. & Lydon‐Staley, D. M. (2020). Implications of family cohesion and conflict for adolescent mood and well‐being: Examining within‐and between‐family processes on a daily timescale. Family Process, 59(4), 1672-1689. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12515
26. Ginsberg, B. G. (1995). Parent-Adolescent Relationship Program (PARD): Relationship enhancement therapy with adolescents and their families (fathers and sons). Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 32(1), 108–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.32.1.108
27. Graham M. A., Sauerheber J. D. & Britzman M. J. (2013). Choice theory and family counseling: a pragmatic, culturally sensitive approach. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families 21(2), 230-234. https://doi.org/10.1177/106648071246653
28. Hafen, C. A., & Laursen, B. (2009). More problems and less support: early adolescent adjustment forecasts changes in perceived support from parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(2), 193. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015077
29. Holmbeck, G. N., Paikoff, R. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1995). Parenting adolescents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Children and parenting (Vol. 1, pp. 91–118). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
30. McKinney, C., Milone, M. C., & Renk, K. (2011). Parenting and late adolescent emotional adjustment: Mediating effects of discipline and gender. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 42(4), 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0229-2
31. Jensen, M. R., Wong, J. J., Gonzales, N. A., Dumka, L. E., Millsap, R., & Coxe, S. (2014). Long-term effects of a universal family intervention: Mediation through parent-adolescent conflict. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 43(3), 415-427. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.891228
32. Karataş, S., Mercan, Ç. S., & Düzen, A. (2016). Adolescents’ perceptions of parent relationships: A qualitative study. Balıkesir University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 19(36), 237–258. https://doi.org/10.31795/baunsobed.645231
33. Kaya, A., Macit, Z. B., & Siyez, D. M. (2012). Examination of applications made to the psychological counseling and guidance service of a primary school. Elementary Education Online, 11(4), 1087–1100. https://izlik.org/JA88DG43HU
34. Kern, M. L., Benson, L., Steinberg, E. A. & Steinberg, L. (2016). “The EPOCH measure of adolescent well-being. Psychological Assessment, 28(5), 586-597
35. Kho, C., Main, A., & Rote, W. M. (2022). Maternal psychological control and mother-adolescent conflict discussion quality: Different perceptions are key. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(6), 896–906. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000943
36. Klootwijk, C. L., Koele, I. J., Van Hoorn, J., Güroğlu, B. & van Duijvenvoorde, A. C. (2021). Parental Support and Positive Mood Buffer Adolescents’ Academic Motivation During the COVID‐19 Pandemic. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(3), 780-795. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12660
37. Laursen, B., Coy, K. C. & Collins, W. A. (1998). Reconsidering changes in parent-child conflict across adolescence: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 69(3), 817–832. https://doi.org/10.2307/1132206
38. Leitch, R., & Day, C. (2000). Action research and reflective practice: Towards a holistic view. Educational Action Research, 8(1), 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650790000200108
39. Liaupsin, C. J., Ferro, J. B. & Umbreit, J. (2012). Treatment integrity in intervention research: Models,measures, and future directions. In B. G. Cook, M. Tankersley, T. J. Landrum (Eds.), Classroom behavior, contexts, and ınterventions (Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, Vol. 25), (301-319). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0735-004X(2012)0000025017
40. LoBraico, E. J., Brinberg, M., Ram, N., & Fosco, G. M. (2020). Exploring processes in day to‐day parent–adolescent conflict and angry mood: Evidence for circular causality. Family Process, 59(4), 1706-1721. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12506
41. Marmorstein, N. R., & Iacono, W. G. (2004). Major depression and conduct disorder in youth: Associations with parental psychopathology and parent–child conflict. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00228.x
42. McKinney, C., & Renk, K. (2011). A multivariate model of parent–adolescent relationship variables
43. McLaren, R. M., &Sillars, A. (2020). Parent and adolescent conversations about hurt: How interaction patterns predict empathic accuracy and perceived understanding. Communication Monographs, 87(3), 312-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2020.1722848
44. Moed, A., Gershoff, E. T., Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Losoya, S., Spinrad, T. L., & Liew, J. (2015). Parent–adolescent conflict as sequences of reciprocal negative emotion: Links with conflict resolution and adolescents’ behavior problems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(8), 1607–1622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0209-5
45. Nelson J. A. (2006). For Parents Only: A strategic family therapy approach in school counseling, The Famıly Journal: Counselıng and Therapy for Couples and Famılıes,14(2), 180-183. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480705285557
46. Onedera, J. D., & Greenwalt, B. (2007). Choice theory: an interview with Dr. William Glasser, The Family Journal, 15(1), 79-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/106648070629415
47. Openshaw, D. K., Mills, T. A., Adams, G. R., & Durso, D. D. (1992). Conflict resolution in parent-adolescent dyads: The influence of social skills training. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(4), 457-468. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489274004
48. Paikoff, R. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). Do parent–child relationships change during puberty? Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.47
49. Rademacher, C., Hautmann, C., & Doepfner, M. (2016). Treatment of parent-adolescent conflicts with the therapy program for adolescents with disturbances of self-esteem, performance and relationships (SELBST)–concept and results of a pilot study. Zeitschrift fur Kinder-und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 45(4), 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000440
50. Ravindran, N., Hu, Y., McElwain, N. L. & Telzer, E. H. (2020). Dynamics of mother–adolescent and father–adolescent autonomy and control during a conflict discussion task. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(3), 312-321. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000588
51. Reese-Weber, M. (2000). Middle and late adolescents' conflict resolution skills with siblings: Associations with interparental and parent–adolescent conflict resolution. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(6), 697-711. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026408023351
52. Renk, K., Liljequist, L., Simpson, J. E., & Phares, V. (2005). Gender and age differences in the topics of parent-adolescent conflict. The Family Journal, 13(2), 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480704271190
53. Riesch, S.K., Tosi, C. B., Thurston, C. A., Forsyth, D. M., Kuenning, T.M.S. & Kestly, J. (1993). Effects of communication training on parents and young adolescents. Nursing Research, 42(1), 10-16.
54. Robey, P., Burdenski, T. K., Britzman, M., Crowell, J., & Cisse, G. S. (2011) Systemic applications of choice theory and reality therapy: An interview with Glasser scholars. The Family Journal, 19(4), 427-433. https://doi.org/10.1177/106648071141503
55. Rognli, E.W., Fjermestad, K.W. (2023). Informant discrepancy in report of parent-adolescent conflict as a predictor of hopelessness among depressed adolescents: A replication study. Journal Child Family Study, 32, 2522–2531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02610-3
56. Rueter, M. A. & Conger, R. D. (1995). Antecedents of parent-adolescent disagreements. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(2), 435-448. https://doi.org/10.2307/353697
57. Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16(2), 201-228. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173489
58. Semeniuk, Y. Y., Brown, R. L. & Riesch, S. K. (2016). Analysis of the efficacy of an intervention to improve parent–adolescent problem solving. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 38(7), 790-818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945916634345
59. Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Alpert, A., Davis, B. & Andrews, J. (1997). Family support and conflict: Prospective relations to adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 333-344. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025768504415
60. Shek, D. T. (1998). A longitudinal study of the relations between parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 159(1), 53-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221329809596134
61. Sheldon, K. M. & Gunz, A. (2009). Psychological needs as basic motives, not just experiential requirements. Journal of Personality, 77(5), 1467-1492. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00589.x
62. Shoshani, A. & Steinmetz, S. (2014). Positive psychology at school: A school-based intervention to promote adolescents’ mental health and well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6), 1289-1311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9476-1
63. Sillars, A., Smith, T. & Koerner, A. (2010). Misattributions contributing to empathic (in) accuracy during parent-adolescent conflict discussions. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(6), 727-747. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075103732
64. Silva, K., Ford, C. A. & Miller, V. A. (2020). Daily parent–teen conflict and parent and adolescent well-being: The moderating role of daily and person-level warmth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 1601-1616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01251-9
65. Steinberg, L., & Silk, J. S. (2002). Parenting adolescents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Children and parenting (2nd ed., pp. 103–133). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
66. Tannous Haddad, L. & Shechtman, Z. (2019). Movies as a therapeutic technique in school‐based counseling groups to reduce parent–adolescent conflict. Journal of Counseling & Development, 97(3), 306-316. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12270
67. Turliuc, M. N., & Marici, M. (2013). What do Romanian parents and adolescents have conflicts about? Revista de Cercetare și Intervenție Socială, 42, 28–49.
68. Van Doorn, M. D., Branje, S. J. & Meeus, W. H. (2011). Developmental changes in conflict resolution styles in parent–adolescent relationships: A four-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 97-107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9516-7
69. Wang, J. N., Liu, L., & Wang, L. (2013). Prevalence and associated factors of emotional and behavioural problems in Chinese school adolescents: A cross-sectional survey. Child: Care, Health and Development, 40(2), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12034
70. Weymouth, B. B., Buehler, C., Zhou, N. & Henson, R. A. (2016). A meta‐analysis of parent-adolescent conflict: Disagreement, hostility, and youth maladjustment. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 8(1), 95-112. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12126
71. Wood, C. & Davidson, J. (1993). Conflict resolution in the family: A PET evaluation study. Australian Psychologist, 28(2), 100-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050069308258883
72. Yang, X., & Zhang, L. (2021). Reducing parent-adolescent conflicts about mobile phone use: The role of parenting styles. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(3), 563–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050157920986190