Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Tarımsal Üretkenlik Üzerine Tetkikat ve Notlar

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 81 Sayı: 292, 787 - 856, 01.12.2017

Kayhan Orbay

https://doi.org/10.37879/belleten.2017.787

Öz

Osmanlı tarihinde 16. yüzyıl tahrir defterlerine dayalı demografi k çalışmalarda hızlı bir nüfus artışı dönemi olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Tahrir defterlerinin sağladığı veriler, aynı dönem için tarımsal üretim ve üretkenlik hesaplamaları yapılmasını teşvik etmektedir. Böylece iktisat tarihçileri nüfus değişimleri ile tarımsal ekonomideki gelişmeleri ilişkilendirerek anlamaya gayret etmektedir. Elde edilen sonuçlar tarımsal üretimde nüfusun hayli gerisinde kalan bir artışa işaret etmektedir. Bu makale, önce Batı’da tarımsal üretkenlik üzerine yapılan çalışmaları daha sonra Osmanlı tarımsal tarihi üzerine çalışmaları ve yanıtı aranan sualleri gözden geçirerek arşiv malzemesi, hesaplama usulleri ve ulaşılan sonuçlara değinmekte, üretim ve üretkenlik hesaplarının zaaflarını vurgulamaktadır. Daha sonra, Osmanlı tarımında üretim ve üretkenlik hesaplamalarında üzerinde durulması gereken bazı hususlara değinmektedir. Osmanlı tarımsal tarihinin arşiv kaynakları tahrir defterleri ile sınırlı değildir. Vakıf defterleri içinde de tarımsal üretim ve üretkenliğe dair soruları yanıtlayabilecek ve iktisat tarihçilerinin dikkate alması lazım gelen kayıtlar bulunmaktadır. Bu makale, vakıf defterlerindeki kayıtları esas alarak bugüne değin üretim ve üretkenlik verilerinin elde edildiği malzeme ve usuller ile tüm hesaplamalar müddetince dayanılan kabullerin sağlam olmadıklarını iddia etmektedir. Tahrir defterlerindeki yetersiz ve sağlıksız veriler sebebiyle hesaplamalar sonucu elde edilen rakamların ve bunlara dayanan her türlü yanıtın isabeti hakkında şüphe duyulmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

tarımsal üretkenlik, emek üretkenliği, tarımsal ekonomi, tarımsal devrim

Reconsiderations and Notes on Agricultural Productivity in the Ottoman Empire

Öz

Ottoman historiography considers the survey registers as the primary source for demographic history and studies on these registers reveal the 16th century as a period of rapid population rise. The rich content of the registers encouraged the historians to estimate agricultural production and productivity for the 16th and 17th centuries. Thus, economic historians attempted to understand economic developments by linking changes in population and agricultural economy. Historians widely concluded that there was an increase in agricultural production lagging behind the population rise in the 16th century. This paper reviews the works on agricultural productivity in the Western economic history, then it focuses on the works on Ottoman agricultural history. It reconsiders the question pool in the historiography, deals with the pitfalls in archival sources and methods for calculating production and productivity. Archival sources for the Ottoman agricultural history are not limited to the survey registers. The waqf registers can contribute signifi cantly to the economic and demographic history. There are many records in these registers which need to be considered by the economic historians in studying production and productivity matters. Based on these records in the waqf registers this paper concludes that archival sources from which production and productivity data were extracted have several drawbacks and challenges assumptions used in calculations. Therefore, this paper argues that margin of error in estimation is too large and casts doubt on alleged production and productivity figures.

Anahtar Kelimeler

agricultural productivity, labour productivity, agricultural economy, agricultural revolution

Kaynakça

• MAD 2, MAD 5470, MAD 15167, MAD 15352, MAD 15353, MAD 15355, MAD 15357, MAD 15358, MAD 15361, MAD 15908 Yayınlar
• Addy, John, The Agrarian Revolution, London, Longman, 1972.
• Akdağ, Mustafa, Türkiyenin İktisadi ve İçtimai Tarihi C. II 1453-1559, TTK, Ankara 1971.
• __________, Türk Halkının Dirlik ve Düzenlik Kavgası, Celali İsyanları, Cem Yayınevi, İstanbul 1995.
• Allen, Robert C., “The Growth of Labor Productivity in Early Modern English Agri- culture”, Explorations in Economic History, 25/2, 1988, ss. 117-146.
• __________, “Inferring Yields from Probate Inventories”, The Journal of Economic His- tory, vol. 48, no. 1, 1988, ss. 117-125.
• __________, Enclosure and the Yeoman, Oxford, Clarendon, 1992.
• __________,, “Tracking the agricultural revolution in England”, Economic History Re- view, 52/2, 1999, ss. 209-235.
• __________, “Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300- 1800”, European Review of Economic History, 3, 2000, ss. 1-25.
• __________, “English and Welsh Agriculture, 1300-1850: Output, Inğuts, and Inco- me”, IEHC 2006, XIV International Economic History Congress, 21 to 25 August 2006, Helsinki, Finland.
• __________, “Agricultural productivity and rural incomes in England and the Yangz- te Delta, c.1620-c.1820”, Economic History Review, 62/3, 2009, ss. 525-550.
• Barkan, Ömer Lütfi , “Tarihi Demografi Araştırmaları ve Osmanlı Tarihi”, Türkiyat Mecmuası, 10, 1953, ss. 1-26.
• __________, “Edirne Askeri Kassamına Ait Tereke Defterleri (1545-1659)”, Belgeler, III/5-6, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara: 1966, ss. 1-479.
• __________, “Research on the Ottoman Fiscal Surveys”, Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East, From the Rise of Islam to the Present Day, ed. M. A. Cook, London, Oxford University Press, 1970, ss. 163-171.
• Barkan, Ömer Lütfi - Meriçli, Enver, Hüdavendigar Livası Tahrir Defterleri I, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara, 1988.
• van Bath, B. H. Slicher, The Agrarian History of Western Europe, London, Edward Ar- nold, 1966.
• __________, “Eighteenth-Century Agriculture on the Continent of Europe: Evoluti- on or Revolution?”, Agricultural History, 43/1, 1969, ss. 169-180.
• Bean Louis H., “Crops, Weather, and the Agricultural Revolution”, The American Sta- tistician, 21/3, 1967, ss. 10-14.
• Boldizzoni, Francesco, The Poverty of Clio; Resurrecting Economic History, Princeton, Prin- ceton University Press, 2011.
• Boserup, Ester, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth; The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure, London, 1965, George Allen&Unwin Ltd.
• O’Brien, P. K., “Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution”, The Economic History Re- view, 30/1, 1977, ss. 166-181.
• __________, “Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution”; Patrick K. O’Brien and Leandro Prados De La Escosura, “Agricultural productivity and European in- dustrialization, 1890-1980”, Economic History Review, XLV, 3, 1992, ss. 514-536.
• Campbell, Bruce M. S. - Overton, Mark “A New Perspective on Medieval and Early Modern Agriculture: Six Centuries of Norfolk Farming c.1250-c.1850”, Past & Present, 141, 1993, ss. 38-105.
• Campbell, Bruce M. S., English Seigniorial Agrciulture 1250-1450, Cambridge, Cambri- dge University Press, 2000.
• Chambers, J. D. - Mingay, G. E., The Agricultural Revolution 1750-1880, New York, Schocken Books, 1966.
• Chayanov, A. V., “On the Theory of Non-Capitalist Economic Systems”, On the Theory of Peasant Economy içinde, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1986.
• Chorley, G. P. H., “The Agricultural Revolution in Northern Europe, 1850-1880: Nitrogen, Legumes, and Crop Productivity”, The Economic History Review, 34/1, 1981, ss. 71-93.
• Clark, Gergory, “Productivity Growth without Technical Change in European Agri- culture before 1850”, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 47/ 2, 1987, ss. 419-432.
• __________, “Yields per acre in English agriculture, 1250-1860: evidence from la- bour inputs”, Economic History Review, 44/3, 1991, ss. 445-460.
• __________, “The Economics of Exhaustion, the Postan Thesis, and the Agricultural Revolution”, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 52, 1992, ss. 61-84.
• __________, “The Long March of History: Farm Wages, Population and Economic Growth, England 1209-1869”, Economic History Review, 60, 1, 2007, ss. 97-135.
• Cook M. A., Population Pressure in Rural Anatolia 1450-1600, London, 1972, Oxford University Press.
• Coşgel, Metin M., “Agricultural Productivity in the Early Ottoman Empire”, Research in Economic History, 24, 2007, ss. 161-187.
• Crafts, N. F. R., “English Economic Growth in the Eighteenth Century: A Re-Exami- nation of Deane and Cole’s Estimates”, The Economic History Review, New Series, vol. 29, no. 2, 1976, ss. 226-235.
• __________, “British Economic Growth, 1700-1831: A Review of the Evidence”, The Ecojnomic History Review, 396/2, 1983, ss. 177-199.
• Crafts, Nicholas F. R., “British Industrialization in an International Context”, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 19/3, 1989, ss. 415-428.
• Çağatay, Neşet, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Reayadan Alınan Vergi ve Resimler”, A.Ü. Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 5/5, 1947, ss. 483-511.
• Daelemans, F., “Tithe Revenues in Rural South West Brabant, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Century”, Productivity of Land and Agricultural Revolution in the Low Countries (1250- 1800), Herman van der Wee ve Eddy van Cauwenberghe (edi.), Leuven, Leuven University, 1978, ss. 25-41.
• Deane, Phyllis - Cole, W. A., British Economic Growth, 1688-1959; Trends and Structure, London, Cambridge University Press, 1969.
• Dimitrov, Strashimir, “Za agrarnite otnosheniya v Balgaria prez XVIII v.” [About the Agrarian Relations in Bulgaria during the 18th Century], Pisiy Hilendarski i negovata epoha (1762-1962), Sofi a, 1962, ss. 129-165.
• Erder, Leyla, “The Measurement of Preindustrial Population Changes: The Ottoman Empire from the 15th to 17th Century”, Middle Eastern Studies, XI, 1979, ss. 284- 301.
• Ertürk, Volkan, “XVI. Yüzyıl Anadolusu’nda Zirai Yapı ve Köylülerin Geçim Du- rumları Hakkında Bir Değerlendirme: Akşehir Örneği”, Turkish Studies, vol6/4, 2011, ss. 523-537.
• Faroqhi, Suraiya, “The Peasants of Saideli in the Late Sixteenth Century”, London, Variorum Reprints, XI, ss. 233.
• Federico, Giovanni - Paolo, Malanima, “Progress, Decline, Growth: Product and Pro- ductivity in Italian Agriculture, 1000-2000”, The Economic History Review, 57/3, 2004, ss. 437-464.
• McGowan, Bruce, “Food Supply and Taxation on the Middle Danube (1568-1579)”, Archivum Ottomanicum, 1, 1969, ss. 139-196.
• __________, Economic Life in the Ottoman Europe; Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600-1800, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981.
• __________, “The Study of Land and Agriculture in the Ottoman Provinces within the Context of an Expanding World Economy in the 17th and 18th Centuries”, International Journal of Turkish Studies, 1981, 2/1, ss. 57-63.
• Gökçe, Turan, XVI ve XVII. Yüzyıllarda Lazıkıyye (Denizli) Kazası, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 2000.
• Göyünç, Nejat, “Hane Deyimi Hakkında”, İ.Ü. Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Dergisi, 32, 1979, ss. 331-348.
• Grantham, G. W., “Divisions of Labour: agricultural productivity and occupational specialization in pre-industrial France”, Economic History Review, 46/3, 1993, ss. 478-502.
• Gutmann, M. P., “War, the Tithe and Agricultural Production: the Meuse Basin North of Liege, 1661-1740”, Productivity of Land and Agricultural Revolution in the Low Countries (1250-1800), Herman van der Wee ve Eddy van Cauwenberghe (edi.), Leuven, Leuven University, 1978, ss. 65-76.
• Harrison, J., “Grain Price Analysis and Harvest Qualities, 1465-1634”, The Agricultural History Review, 19/2, 1971, ss. 135-155.
• Hoskins, W. G., “Harvest Fluctuations and English Economic History, 1480-1619”, The Agricultural History Review, 12, 1964, ss. 28-46.
• __________, “Harvest Fluctuations and English Economic History, 1620-1759”, The Agricultural History Review, 16, 1968, ss. 15-31.
• Hunt, E. H., “Labor Productivity in English Agriculture, 1850-1914”, The Economic History Review, vol. 20 no. 2, 1967, ss. 280-292.
• Hunt, Robert C., “Labor Productivity and Agricultural Development”, Human Eco- logy, 28/2, 2000, ss. 251-277.
• İnalcık, Halil, “Osmanlılarda Raiyyet Rüsumu”, Belleten, 23, 1959, ss. 3-65.
• __________, “The Emergence of Big Farms, Çiftliks: State, Landlords, and Tenants”, Landholding and Commercial Agriculture in the Middle East, New York, SUNY Press, 1991, ss. 17-34.
• __________, “Köy, Köylü ve İmparatorluk”, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu: Toplum ve Ekonomi, İstanbul, Eren Yayıncılık, 1993.
• __________, “Village, Peasant and Empire”, The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire; Essays on Economy and Society, Bloomington, Indiana University Turkish Studies and Turkish Ministry of Culture Joint Series, vol. 9, 1993.
• __________, “The Çift-Hane system and Peasant Taxation”, From Empire to Republic: Essays on Ottoman and Turkish Social History, Istanbul, The Isıs Press, 1995.
• İslamoğlu-İnan, Huri, State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire, Leiden 1994, Brill.
• Jackson, R. V., “Growth and Deceleration in English Agriculture, 1660-1790”, The Economic History Review, 38/3, 1985, ss. 333-351.
• John, A. H., “Agricultural Productivity and Economic Growth in England, 1700- 1760”, ”, The Journal of Economic History, 25/1, 1965, ss. 19-34.
• Jones, E. L. - S. J., Woolf (edi.), “Preface”, Agrarian Change and Economic Development: The Historical Problems, London, Methuen & Co., 1969, ss. vii-xi.
• Jones, E. L., “Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660-1750: Agricultural Change”, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 25, no. 1, 1965, ss. 1-18.
• Kander, Astrid - Paul, Warde, “Energy availability from livestock and agricultural pro- ductivity in Europe, 1815-1913: a new comparison”, The Economic History Review, 64/1, 2011, ss. 1-29.
• Karakacili, Eona, “English Agrarian Labor Productivity Rates Before the Black De- ath: A Case Study”, The Journal of Economic History, 64/1, 2004, ss. 24-60.
• Keyder, Çağlar, “Introduction: Large-Scale Commercial Agriculture in the Otto- man Empire?”, Landholding and Commercial Agriculture in the Middle East, New York, SUNY Press, 1991, ss. 1-13.
• Kerridge, Eric, “The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered”, Agricultural History, 43/4, 1969, ss. 463-476.
• Lowry, Heath W., “The Ottoman Tahrir Defterleri as a Source for Social and Economic History: Pitfalls and Limitations”, Studies in Defterology. Ottoman Society in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Istanbul, Isis Press, 1992, ss. 3-18.
• Mingay, G. E., “The ‘Agricultural Revolution’ in English History: A Reconsideration”, Agricultural History, 37/3, 1963, ss. 123-133.
• __________, Enclosure and the Small Farmer in the Age of the Industrial Revolution, London, Macmillan, 1976.
• __________, “Dr. Kerridge’s “Agricultural Revolution”: A Comment”, Agricultural History, 43/4, 1969, ss. 477-482.
• Murphey, Rhoads, “Population Movements and Labor Mobility in Balkan Contexts”, Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture, 16th–18th Centuries, Hampshire, Ashgate Va- riorum, 2007, XII.
• Orbay,Kayhan, “Structure and the Content of the Waqf Account Books as sources for Ottoman Economic and Institutional History”, Turcica, Revue D’Etudes Turques, vol. 39, 2007, ss. 3-48.
• __________, “Distributing Food, Bread and Cash: Vakıf Taamhoran and Fodulahoran Registers as Archival Sources for Imarets”, Feeding People, Feeding Power; Imarets in the Ottoman Empire, ed. Amy Singer et al., Eren Yayıncılık, Istanbul 2007, ss. 171-196.
• __________, “Vergi Kayıtları, Mahsul Miktarları ve Fiyatlar: Vakıfl arın Rüsum, Aşar-ı Hububat ve Füruht-ı Hububat Defterleri”, A.Ü. Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi (OTAM) Dergisi, no: 30, 2011, ss. 127-143.
• __________, “Bursa’da Sultan II. Murad Vakfı’nın Mali Tarihi (1608-1641)”, İ.Ü. İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası, 61/2, 2011, ss. 293-322.
• __________, Osmanlı Çift-Hane Sistemi, basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, A.Ü. SBF, An- kara 2011.
• __________, “Orhan Gazi Vakfı’nın Mali Tarihinden Bir Kesit (1593-1641)”, Vakıfl ar Dergisi, 38, 2012, ss. 65-84.
• __________, “Emir Sultan (Mehmed El-Buhari) Vakfı’nın Mali Tarihi”, U.Ü. Fen-Ede- biyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 22/22, 2012, ss. 23-42.
• Orbay, Kayhan - Oruç, Hatice, “Sultan II. Murad’ın Edirne Câmi‘-i Şerîf ve Dârü’l-ha- dîs Vakfı (1592-1607)”, İ.Ü. Tarih Dergisi, 56, 2012, ss. 1-24.
• Oruç, Hatice - Orbay, Kayhan, “Filibe’de Şehabeddin Paşa Vakfı 1632-1641 (H. 1041-1051)”, İ.Ü. Güneydoğu Avrupa Araştırmaları Dergisi, 18, 2010, ss. 19-57.
• Overton, Mark, “Estimating Crop Yields from Probate Inventories: An Example from East Anglia, 1585-1735”, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 39, no. 2, 1979, ss. 363-378.
• __________, “Agricultural Productivity in Eighteenth-Century England: Some Furt- her Speculations”, The Economic History Review, 37/2, 1984, ss. 244-251.
• __________, “Agricultural Revolution?: England, 1540-1850”, Recent Findings of Rese- arch in Economic & Social History, 3, 1986, ss. 1-4.
• __________, “Weather and Agricultural Change in England, 1660-1739”, Agricultural History, 63/2, 1989, ss. 77-88.
• __________, “Re-establishing the English Agricultural Revolution”, Agricultural His- tory Review, 44/1, 1996, ss. 1-20.
• __________, Agricultural Revolution in England, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• Overton, Mark - Bruce, M. S. Campbell, “Production et productivité dans l’agricultu- re anglais, 1086-1871 (Production and productivity in English agriculture 1086- 1871)”, Session 122, 14th International Economic History Congress, Helsinki, Finland, 21-25 August 2006.
• __________, “XVI. Yüzyıl Anadolusu’nda Köylülerin Vergi Yükü ve Geçim Durumu Hakkında Bir Araştırma”, Osmanlı Araştırmaları / The Journal of Ottoman Studies, XVII, 1997, ss. 77-90.
• __________, XV-XVI. Yüzyıllarda Canik Sancağı, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 1999.
• Özel, Oktay, “Population Changes in Ottoman Anatolia During the 16th and 17th Centuries: The “Demographic Crisis” Reconsidered”, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 36, 2004, ss. 181-205.
• Parveva, Stefka, “Rural Agrarian and Social Structure in the Edirne Region during the Second Half of the Seventeenth Century”, Village, Town and People in the Otto- man Balkans 16th-mid-19th Century, The Isis Press, Istanbul 2009, ss. 11-60.
• __________, “Agrarian Land and Harvest in South-West Peloponnese in the Early 18th Century”, Village, Town and People in the Ottoman Balkans 16th-mid-19th Century, Istanbul, 2009, The Isis Press.
• Perry, P. J., “Agricultural History: A Geographer’s Critique”, Agricultural History, 1972, 46/2, ss. 259-267.
• Prothero, R. E. (Lord Ernle), English Farming; Past and Present, with introduction by G. E. Fussell and O. R. McGregor, Chicago, Quadrangle Books, 1961.
• Riches, Naomi, The Agricultural Revolution in Norfolk, London, Frank Cass&Co.Ltd., 1967.
• Sullivan, Richard J., “The Timing and Pattern of Technological Development in Eng- lish Agricultural, 1611-1850”, The Journal of Economic History, 45-/2, 1985, ss. 305-314.
• Thompson, F. M. L., “The Second Agricultural Revolution, 1815-1880”, The Economic History Review, 21/1, 1968, ss. 62-77.
• Timmer, C. Peter, “The Turnip, the New Husbandry, and the English Agricultural Revolution”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 83/3, 1969, ss. 375-395.
• Tits-Dieuaide, M.-J., “Cereal Yields around Louvain, 1404-1729, Productivity of Land and Agricultural Revolution in the Low Countries (1250-1800), Herman van der Wee ve Eddy van Cauwenberghe (edi.), Leuven University, Leuven 1978, ss. 97-105.
• __________, “Peasant Dues in Brabant. The Example of the Meldet Farm near Tir- lemont (1380-1787), Productivity of Land and Agricultural Revolution in the Low Countries (1250-1800), Herman van der Wee ve Eddy van Cauwenberghe (edi.), Leuven University, Leuven 1978, ss. 107-123.
• Todorova, Maria N., “Was There a Demographic Crisis in the Ottoman Empire in the Seventeenth Century?”, Etudes Balkaniques, 2, 1988, ss. 55-63
• Turner, Michael, “Agricultural Prodctuvity in England in the Eighteenth Century: Evidence from Crop Yields”, The Economic History Review, 35/4, 1982, ss. 489-510.
• Vandenbroeke, C. - Vanderpijpen, W., “Chapter VIII – The Agricultural Revolution in Flanders and in Belgium: Myth or Reality?”, Productivity of Land and Agricultural Revolution in the Low Countries (1250-1800), Herman van der Wee ve Eddy van Cauwenberghe (edi.), Leuven University, Leuven 1978, ss. 163-170.
• Veinstein, Gilles, “On the Çiftlik Debate”, Landholding and Commercial Agriculture in the Middle East, SUNY Press, New York 1991, ss. 35-53.
• Venzke, Margaret L., “The Ottoman Tahrir Defterleri and Agricultural Productivity”, Osmanlı Araştırmaları / The Journal of Ottoman Studies, 17, 1997, ss. 1-61.
• Van der Wee, Herman, “Introduction – The Agricultural Development of the Low Countries as Revealed by the Tithe and Rent Statistics, 1250-1800”, Productivity of Land and Agricultural Revolution in the Low Countries (1250-1800), Herman van der Wee ve Eddy van Cauwenberghe (edi.), Leuven University, Leuven 1978, ss. 1-23.
• White, Sam, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, New York 2011.
• Wrigley, E. Anthony, “Urban Growth and Agricultural Change: England and the Continent in the Early Modern Period”, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 15, no. 4, 1985, ss. 683-728.
• __________, “The transition to an advanced organic economy: half a millennium of English agriculture”, Economic History Review, 59/3, 2006, ss. 435-480.